Native support for execution of get exponent, get mantissa, and scale instructions within a graphics processing unit via reuse of fused multiply-add execution unit hardware logic

ABSTRACT

Embodiments are directed to systems and methods for reuse of FMA execution unit hardware logic to provide native support for execution of get exponent, get mantissa, and/or scale instructions within a GPU. These new instructions may be used to implement branch-free emulation algorithms for mathematical functions and analytic functions (e.g., transcendental functions) by detecting and handling various special case inputs within a pre-processing stage of the FMA execution unit, which allows the main dataflow of the FMA execution unit to be bypassed for such special cases. Since special cases are handled by the FMA execution unit, library functions emulating various functions, including, but not limited to logarithm, exponential, and division operations may be implemented with significantly fewer lines of machine-level code, thereby providing improved performance for HPC applications.

TECHNICAL FIELD

Embodiments described herein generally relate to the field of graphics processing units (GPUs) and, more particularly, resuse of fused multiply-add execution unit hardware logic to provide native support for execution of get exponent, get mantissa, and scale instructions within a GPU for improved performance of high performance computing (HPC) applications.

BACKGROUND

Graphics processing units (GPUs) are increasingly being used to accelerate high performance computing (HPC) applications in fields ranging from life sciences and oil exploration, to financial analysis and physical simulation. Analysis of computation patterns of HPC applications reveals transcendental functions (e.g., logarithm and exponential operations) play a significant role in these applications. In contrast to their usage in three-dimensional (3D) rendering workloads, in the context of HPC applications, transcendental functions have special requirements. On one hand, some HPC applications require much higher accuracy than provided by 3D Application Programming Interfaces (APIs) (e.g., Microsoft DirectX (DX), the Open Graphics Library (OpenGL or OGL), and the Vulkan graphics API). On the other hand, the double precision data format is commonly used in HPC applications while they are rarely used in 3D workloads. As such, although GPUs have dedicated native instructions to perform transcendental functions, they do not address the needs of HPC applications.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The present invention is illustrated by way of example and not limitation in the figures of the accompanying drawings in which like references indicate similar elements, and in which:

FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a processing system, according to an embodiment;

FIGS. 2A-2D illustrate computing systems and graphics processors provided by embodiments described herein;

FIGS. 3A-3C illustrate block diagrams of additional graphics processor and compute accelerator architectures provided by embodiments described herein;

FIG. 4 is a block diagram of a graphics processing engine of a graphics processor in accordance with some embodiments;

FIGS. 5A-5B illustrate thread execution logic including an array of processing elements employed in a graphics processor core according to embodiments described herein;

FIG. 6 illustrates an additional execution unit, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 7 is a block diagram illustrating a graphics processor instruction formats according to some embodiments;

FIG. 8 is a block diagram of a graphics processor according to another embodiment;

FIGS. 9A-9B illustrate a graphics processor command format and command sequence, according to some embodiments;

FIG. 10 illustrates exemplary graphics software architecture for a data processing system according to some embodiments;

FIG. 11A is a block diagram illustrating an IP core development system, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 11B illustrates a cross-section side view of an integrated circuit package assembly, according to some embodiments described herein;

FIG. 11C illustrates a package assembly that includes multiple units of hardware logic chiplets connected to a substrate;

FIG. 11D illustrates a package assembly including interchangeable chiplets, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 12 is a block diagram illustrating an exemplary system on a chip integrated circuit that may be fabricated using one or more IP cores, according to an embodiment;

FIGS. 13A-13B are block diagrams illustrating exemplary graphics processors for use within an SoC, according to embodiments described herein;

FIG. 14 is a block diagram of a shader execution unit, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 15 is a block diagram of a fused multiply-added (FMA) execution unit with modifications to support execution of get exponent instructions, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 16 is a flow diagram illustrating processing of a get exponent instruction, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 17 is a block diagram of an FMA execution unit with modifications to support execution of get mantissa instructions, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 18 is a flow diagram illustrating processing of a get mantissa instruction, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 19 is a block diagram of an FMA execution unit with modifications to support execution of scale instructions, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 20 is a flow diagram illustrating processing of a scale instruction, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 21 illustrates differences between a baseline software emulation algorithm and a branch-free software emulation algorithm for an exponential operation, according to an embodiment; and

FIG. 22 illustrates differences between a baseline software emulation algorithm and a branch-free software emulation algorithm for a logarithm operation, according to an embodiment.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Systems and methods are described for reuse of fused multiply-add execution unit hardware logic to provide native support for execution of get exponent, get mantissa, and/or scale instructions within a GPU. Library and compiler developers write machine-level code to emulate various mathematical functions and analytic functions (e.g., transcendental functions) with numerical algorithms, the performance of which varies depending on the implementation and the accuracy desired to be achieved. The machine-level code of library functions implementing the emulation algorithms typically includes tens of floating point unit (FPU) instructions. Due to the significant role transcendental functions play in HPC applications, acceleration of these functions can significantly improve overall performance of HPC applications.

The numerical algorithms used to emulate transcendental functions vary with different accuracy requirements. Typically, these algorithms first perform range reduction, and then perform piece-wise interpolation, table lookup, polynomial approximation or Newton-Raphson iteration to refine the accuracy for the specific range. Lastly, post-processing may be performed to achieve desired accuracy for the whole range. One of the challenges for these algorithms is the handling of special inputs (e.g., Not a Number (NaN), infinity (INF), zero, or a denormal number). For example, depending upon the particular analytic function being emulated, when one or more of the floating point inputs or a combination of floating point inputs of a given function represents one of multiple special cases, the algorithm needs to branch to bypass the main path implementation and process such special inputs with special code. This divergency caused by different input values can significantly impact the performance of such algorithms on GPUs processors, especially those implementing a Single Instruction Multiple Data (SIMD)/Single Instruction Multiple Thread (SIMT) execution model.

Various embodiments described herein seek to address aspects of the foregoing limitations by providing new natively supported floating point instructions (e.g., a get exponent instruction, a get mantissa instruction, and a scale instruction) that may be used to perform branch-free emulation algorithms for transcendental functions. In the description that follows, FIGS. 1 through 13A-13B provide an overview of exemplary data processing system and graphics processor logic that incorporates or relates to the various embodiments. FIGS. 14-22 provide specific details of the various embodiments with reference to a graphics processor (e.g., a GPU). As described further below, in one embodiment, existing hardware logic of an FPU pipeline of a GPU may be reused and modified to support the new instructions. For example, fused multiply-add (FMA) execution units of the FPU pipeline may detect and handle special case inputs, thereby allowing the number of total instructions for emulation algorithms to be reduced. In some examples, branch codes can be completely excluded from emulation algorithms for various mathematic and/or analytic functions (e.g., transcendental functions). In this manner, the performance of such functions may be improved significantly.

For the purposes of explanation, numerous specific details are set forth to provide a thorough understanding of the various embodiments described below. However, it will be apparent to a skilled practitioner in the art that the embodiments may be practiced without some of these specific details. In other instances, well-known structures and devices are shown in block diagram form to avoid obscuring the underlying principles, and to provide a more thorough understanding of embodiments. Although some of the following embodiments are described with reference to a graphics processor, the techniques and teachings described herein may be applied to various types of circuits or semiconductor devices, including general purpose processing devices or graphic processing devices. Reference herein to “one embodiment” or “an embodiment” indicate that a particular feature, structure, or characteristic described in connection or association with the embodiment can be included in at least one of such embodiments. However, the appearances of the phrase “in one embodiment” in various places in the specification do not necessarily all refer to the same embodiment.

In the following description and claims, the terms “coupled” and “connected,” along with their derivatives, may be used. It should be understood that these terms are not intended as synonyms for each other. “Coupled” is used to indicate that two or more elements, which may or may not be in direct physical or electrical contact with each other, co-operate or interact with each other. “Connected” is used to indicate the establishment of communication between two or more elements that are coupled with each other.

System Overview

FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a processing system 100, according to an embodiment. Processing system 100 may be used in a single processor desktop system, a multiprocessor workstation system, or a server system having a large number of processors 102 or processor cores 107. In one embodiment, the processing system 100 is a processing platform incorporated within a system-on-a-chip (SoC) integrated circuit for use in mobile, handheld, or embedded devices such as within Internet-of-things (IoT) devices with wired or wireless connectivity to a local or wide area network.

In one embodiment, processing system 100 can include, couple with, or be integrated within: a server-based gaming platform; a game console, including a game and media console; a mobile gaming console, a handheld game console, or an online game console. In some embodiments the processing system 100 is part of a mobile phone, smart phone, tablet computing device or mobile Internet-connected device such as a laptop with low internal storage capacity. Processing system 100 can also include, couple with, or be integrated within: a wearable device, such as a smart watch wearable device; smart eyewear or clothing enhanced with augmented reality (AR) or virtual reality (VR) features to provide visual, audio or tactile outputs to supplement real world visual, audio or tactile experiences or otherwise provide text, audio, graphics, video, holographic images or video, or tactile feedback; other augmented reality (AR) device; or other virtual reality (VR) device. In some embodiments, the processing system 100 includes or is part of a television or set top box device. In one embodiment, processing system 100 can include, couple with, or be integrated within a self-driving vehicle such as a bus, tractor trailer, car, motor or electric power cycle, plane or glider (or any combination thereof). The self-driving vehicle may use processing system 100 to process the environment sensed around the vehicle.

In some embodiments, the one or more processors 102 each include one or more processor cores 107 to process instructions which, when executed, perform operations for system or user software. In some embodiments, at least one of the one or more processor cores 107 is configured to process a specific instruction set 109. In some embodiments, instruction set 109 may facilitate Complex Instruction Set Computing (CISC), Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC), or computing via a Very Long Instruction Word (VLIW). One or more processor cores 107 may process a different instruction set 109, which may include instructions to facilitate the emulation of other instruction sets. Processor core 107 may also include other processing devices, such as a Digital Signal Processor (DSP).

In some embodiments, the processor 102 includes cache memory 104. Depending on the architecture, the processor 102 can have a single internal cache or multiple levels of internal cache. In some embodiments, the cache memory is shared among various components of the processor 102. In some embodiments, the processor 102 also uses an external cache (e.g., a Level-3 (L3) cache or Last Level Cache (LLC)) (not shown), which may be shared among processor cores 107 using known cache coherency techniques. A register file 106 can be additionally included in processor 102 and may include different types of registers for storing different types of data (e.g., integer registers, floating point registers, status registers, and an instruction pointer register). Some registers may be general-purpose registers, while other registers may be specific to the design of the processor 102.

In some embodiments, one or more processor(s) 102 are coupled with one or more interface bus(es) 110 to transmit communication signals such as address, data, or control signals between processor 102 and other components in the processing system 100. The interface bus 110, in one embodiment, can be a processor bus, such as a version of the Direct Media Interface (DMI) bus. However, processor busses are not limited to the DMI bus, and may include one or more Peripheral Component Interconnect buses (e.g., PCI, PCI express), memory busses, or other types of interface busses. In one embodiment the processor(s) 102 include an integrated memory controller 116 and a platform controller hub 130. The memory controller 116 facilitates communication between a memory device and other components of the processing system 100, while the platform controller hub (PCH) 130 provides connections to I/O devices via a local I/O bus.

The memory device 120 can be a dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) device, a static random-access memory (SRAM) device, flash memory device, phase-change memory device, or some other memory device having suitable performance to serve as process memory. In one embodiment the memory device 120 can operate as system memory for the processing system 100, to store data 122 and instructions 121 for use when the one or more processors 102 executes an application or process. Memory controller 116 also couples with an optional external graphics processor 118, which may communicate with the one or more graphics processors 108 in processors 102 to perform graphics and media operations. In some embodiments, graphics, media, and or compute operations may be assisted by an accelerator 112 which is a coprocessor that can be configured to perform a specialized set of graphics, media, or compute operations. For example, in one embodiment the accelerator 112 is a matrix multiplication accelerator used to optimize machine learning or compute operations. In one embodiment the accelerator 112 is a ray-tracing accelerator that can be used to perform ray-tracing operations in concert with the graphics processor 108. In one embodiment, an external accelerator 119 may be used in place of or in concert with the accelerator 112.

In some embodiments a display device 111 can connect to the processor(s) 102. The display device 111 can be one or more of an internal display device, as in a mobile electronic device or a laptop device or an external display device attached via a display interface (e.g., DisplayPort, etc.). In one embodiment the display device 111 can be a head mounted display (HMD) such as a stereoscopic display device for use in virtual reality (VR) applications or augmented reality (AR) applications.

In some embodiments the platform controller hub 130 enables peripherals to connect to memory device 120 and processor 102 via a high-speed I/O bus. The I/O peripherals include, but are not limited to, an audio controller 146, a network controller 134, a firmware interface 128, a wireless transceiver 126, touch sensors 125, a data storage device 124 (e.g., non-volatile memory, volatile memory, hard disk drive, flash memory, NAND, 3D NAND, 3D XPoint, etc.). The data storage device 124 can connect via a storage interface (e.g., SATA) or via a peripheral bus, such as a Peripheral Component Interconnect bus (e.g., PCI, PCI express). The touch sensors 125 can include touch screen sensors, pressure sensors, or fingerprint sensors. The wireless transceiver 126 can be a Wi-Fi transceiver, a Bluetooth transceiver, or a mobile network transceiver such as a 3G, 4G, 5G, or Long-Term Evolution (LTE) transceiver. The firmware interface 128 enables communication with system firmware, and can be, for example, a unified extensible firmware interface (UEFI). The network controller 134 can enable a network connection to a wired network. In some embodiments, a high-performance network controller (not shown) couples with the interface bus 110. The audio controller 146, in one embodiment, is a multi-channel high definition audio controller. In one embodiment the processing system 100 includes an optional legacy I/O controller 140 for coupling legacy (e.g., Personal System 2 (PS/2)) devices to the system. The platform controller hub 130 can also connect to one or more Universal Serial Bus (USB) controllers 142 connect input devices, such as keyboard and mouse 143 combinations, a camera 144, or other USB input devices.

It will be appreciated that the processing system 100 shown is exemplary and not limiting, as other types of data processing systems that are differently configured may also be used. For example, an instance of the memory controller 116 and platform controller hub 130 may be integrated into a discreet external graphics processor, such as the external graphics processor 118. In one embodiment the platform controller hub 130 and/or memory controller 116 may be external to the one or more processor(s) 102. For example, the processing system 100 can include an external memory controller 116 and platform controller hub 130, which may be configured as a memory controller hub and peripheral controller hub within a system chipset that is in communication with the processor(s) 102.

For example, circuit boards (“sleds”) can be used on which components such as CPUs, memory, and other components are placed are designed for increased thermal performance. In some examples, processing components such as the processors are located on a top side of a sled while near memory, such as DIMMs, are located on a bottom side of the sled. As a result of the enhanced airflow provided by this design, the components may operate at higher frequencies and power levels than in typical systems, thereby increasing performance. Furthermore, the sleds are configured to blindly mate with power and data communication cables in a rack, thereby enhancing their ability to be quickly removed, upgraded, reinstalled, and/or replaced. Similarly, individual components located on the sleds, such as processors, accelerators, memory, and data storage drives, are configured to be easily upgraded due to their increased spacing from each other. In the illustrative embodiment, the components additionally include hardware attestation features to prove their authenticity.

A data center can utilize a single network architecture (“fabric”) that supports multiple other network architectures including Ethernet and Omni-Path. The sleds can be coupled to switches via optical fibers, which provide higher bandwidth and lower latency than typical twisted pair cabling (e.g., Category 5, Category 5e, Category 6, etc.). Due to the high bandwidth, low latency interconnections and network architecture, the data center may, in use, pool resources, such as memory, accelerators (e.g., GPUs, graphics accelerators, FPGAs, ASICs, neural network and/or artificial intelligence accelerators, etc.), and data storage drives that are physically disaggregated, and provide them to compute resources (e.g., processors) on an as needed basis, enabling the compute resources to access the pooled resources as if they were local.

A power supply or source can provide voltage and/or current to processing system 100 or any component or system described herein. In one example, the power supply includes an AC to DC (alternating current to direct current) adapter to plug into a wall outlet. Such AC power can be renewable energy (e.g., solar power) power source. In one example, power source includes a DC power source, such as an external AC to DC converter. In one example, power source or power supply includes wireless charging hardware to charge via proximity to a charging field. In one example, power source can include an internal battery, alternating current supply, motion-based power supply, solar power supply, or fuel cell source.

FIGS. 2A-2D illustrate computing systems and graphics processors provided by embodiments described herein. The elements of FIGS. 2A-2D having the same reference numbers (or names) as the elements of any other figure herein can operate or function in any manner similar to that described elsewhere herein, but are not limited to such.

FIG. 2A is a block diagram of an embodiment of a processor 200 having one or more processor cores 202A-202N, an integrated memory controller 214, and an integrated graphics processor 208. Processor 200 can include additional cores up to and including additional core 202N represented by the dashed lined boxes. Each of processor cores 202A-202N includes one or more internal cache units 204A-204N. In some embodiments each processor core also has access to one or more shared cached units 206. The internal cache units 204A-204N and shared cache units 206 represent a cache memory hierarchy within the processor 200. The cache memory hierarchy may include at least one level of instruction and data cache within each processor core and one or more levels of shared mid-level cache, such as a Level 2 (L2), Level 3 (L3), Level 4 (L4), or other levels of cache, where the highest level of cache before external memory is classified as the LLC. In some embodiments, cache coherency logic maintains coherency between the various cache units 206 and 204A-204N.

In some embodiments, processor 200 may also include a set of one or more bus controller units 216 and a system agent core 210. The one or more bus controller units 216 manage a set of peripheral buses, such as one or more PCI or PCI express busses. System agent core 210 provides management functionality for the various processor components. In some embodiments, system agent core 210 includes one or more integrated memory controllers 214 to manage access to various external memory devices (not shown).

In some embodiments, one or more of the processor cores 202A-202N include support for simultaneous multi-threading. In such embodiment, the system agent core 210 includes components for coordinating and operating cores 202A-202N during multi-threaded processing. System agent core 210 may additionally include a power control unit (PCU), which includes logic and components to regulate the power state of processor cores 202A-202N and graphics processor 208.

In some embodiments, processor 200 additionally includes graphics processor 208 to execute graphics processing operations. In some embodiments, the graphics processor 208 couples with the set of shared cache units 206, and the system agent core 210, including the one or more integrated memory controllers 214. In some embodiments, the system agent core 210 also includes a display controller 211 to drive graphics processor output to one or more coupled displays. In some embodiments, display controller 211 may also be a separate module coupled with the graphics processor via at least one interconnect, or may be integrated within the graphics processor 208.

In some embodiments, a ring-based interconnect unit 212 is used to couple the internal components of the processor 200. However, an alternative interconnect unit may be used, such as a point-to-point interconnect, a switched interconnect, or other techniques, including techniques well known in the art. In some embodiments, graphics processor 208 couples with the ring interconnect 212 via an I/O link 213.

The exemplary I/O link 213 represents at least one of multiple varieties of I/O interconnects, including an on package I/O interconnect which facilitates communication between various processor components and a high-performance embedded memory module 218, such as an eDRAM module. In some embodiments, each of the processor cores 202A-202N and graphics processor 208 can use embedded memory modules 218 as a shared Last Level Cache.

In some embodiments, processor cores 202A-202N are homogenous cores executing the same instruction set architecture. In another embodiment, processor cores 202A-202N are heterogeneous in terms of instruction set architecture (ISA), where one or more of processor cores 202A-202N execute a first instruction set, while at least one of the other cores executes a subset of the first instruction set or a different instruction set. In one embodiment, processor cores 202A-202N are heterogeneous in terms of microarchitecture, where one or more cores having a relatively higher power consumption couple with one or more power cores having a lower power consumption. In one embodiment, processor cores 202A-202N are heterogeneous in terms of computational capability. Additionally, processor 200 can be implemented on one or more chips or as an SoC integrated circuit having the illustrated components, in addition to other components.

FIG. 2B is a block diagram of hardware logic of a graphics processor core 219, according to some embodiments described herein. Elements of FIG. 2B having the same reference numbers (or names) as the elements of any other figure herein can operate or function in any manner similar to that described elsewhere herein, but are not limited to such. The graphics processor core 219, sometimes referred to as a core slice, can be one or multiple graphics cores within a modular graphics processor. The graphics processor core 219 is exemplary of one graphics core slice, and a graphics processor as described herein may include multiple graphics core slices based on target power and performance envelopes. Each graphics processor core 219 can include a fixed function block 230 coupled with multiple sub-cores 221A-221F, also referred to as sub-slices, that include modular blocks of general-purpose and fixed function logic.

In some embodiments, the fixed function block 230 includes a geometry/fixed function pipeline 231 that can be shared by all sub-cores in the graphics processor core 219, for example, in lower performance and/or lower power graphics processor implementations. In various embodiments, the geometry/fixed function pipeline 231 includes a 3D fixed function pipeline (e.g., 3D pipeline 312 as in FIG. 3 and FIG. 4 , described below) a video front-end unit, a thread spawner and thread dispatcher, and a unified return buffer manager, which manages unified return buffers (e.g., unified return buffer 418 in FIG. 4 , as described below).

In one embodiment the fixed function block 230 also includes a graphics SoC interface 232, a graphics microcontroller 233, and a media pipeline 234. The graphics SoC interface 232 provides an interface between the graphics processor core 219 and other processor cores within a system on a chip integrated circuit. The graphics microcontroller 233 is a programmable sub-processor that is configurable to manage various functions of the graphics processor core 219, including thread dispatch, scheduling, and pre-emption. The media pipeline 234 (e.g., media pipeline 316 of FIG. 3 and FIG. 4 ) includes logic to facilitate the decoding, encoding, pre-processing, and/or post-processing of multimedia data, including image and video data. The media pipeline 234 implement media operations via requests to compute or sampling logic within the sub-cores 221-221F.

In one embodiment the SoC interface 232 enables the graphics processor core 219 to communicate with general-purpose application processor cores (e.g., CPUs) and/or other components within an SoC, including memory hierarchy elements such as a shared last level cache memory, the system RAM, and/or embedded on-chip or on-package DRAM. The SoC interface 232 can also enable communication with fixed function devices within the SoC, such as camera imaging pipelines, and enables the use of and/or implements global memory atomics that may be shared between the graphics processor core 219 and CPUs within the SoC. The SoC interface 232 can also implement power management controls for the graphics processor core 219 and enable an interface between a clock domain of the graphics processor core 219 and other clock domains within the SoC. In one embodiment the SoC interface 232 enables receipt of command buffers from a command streamer and global thread dispatcher that are configured to provide commands and instructions to each of one or more graphics cores within a graphics processor. The commands and instructions can be dispatched to the media pipeline 234, when media operations are to be performed, or a geometry and fixed function pipeline (e.g., geometry and fixed function pipeline 231, geometry and fixed function pipeline 237) when graphics processing operations are to be performed.

The graphics microcontroller 233 can be configured to perform various scheduling and management tasks for the graphics processor core 219. In one embodiment the graphics microcontroller 233 can perform graphics and/or compute workload scheduling on the various graphics parallel engines within execution unit (EU) arrays 222A-222F, 224A-224F within the sub-cores 221A-221F. In this scheduling model, host software executing on a CPU core of an SoC including the graphics processor core 219 can submit workloads one of multiple graphic processor doorbells, which invokes a scheduling operation on the appropriate graphics engine. Scheduling operations include determining which workload to run next, submitting a workload to a command streamer, pre-empting existing workloads running on an engine, monitoring progress of a workload, and notifying host software when a workload is complete. In one embodiment the graphics microcontroller 233 can also facilitate low-power or idle states for the graphics processor core 219, providing the graphics processor core 219 with the ability to save and restore registers within the graphics processor core 219 across low-power state transitions independently from the operating system and/or graphics driver software on the system.

The graphics processor core 219 may have greater than or fewer than the illustrated sub-cores 221A-221F, up to N modular sub-cores. For each set of N sub-cores, the graphics processor core 219 can also include shared function logic 235, shared and/or cache memory 236, a geometry/fixed function pipeline 237, as well as additional fixed function logic 238 to accelerate various graphics and compute processing operations. The shared function logic 235 can include logic units associated with the shared function logic 420 of FIG. 4 (e.g., sampler, math, and/or inter-thread communication logic) that can be shared by each N sub-cores within the graphics processor core 219. The shared and/or cache memory 236 can be a last-level cache for the set of N sub-cores 221A-221F within the graphics processor core 219, and can also serve as shared memory that is accessible by multiple sub-cores. The geometry/fixed function pipeline 237 can be included instead of the geometry/fixed function pipeline 231 within the fixed function block 230 and can include the same or similar logic units.

In one embodiment the graphics processor core 219 includes additional fixed function logic 238 that can include various fixed function acceleration logic for use by the graphics processor core 219. In one embodiment the additional fixed function logic 238 includes an additional geometry pipeline for use in position only shading. In position-only shading, two geometry pipelines exist, the full geometry pipeline within the geometry/fixed function pipeline 238, 231, and a cull pipeline, which is an additional geometry pipeline which may be included within the additional fixed function logic 238. In one embodiment the cull pipeline is a trimmed down version of the full geometry pipeline. The full pipeline and the cull pipeline can execute different instances of the same application, each instance having a separate context. Position only shading can hide long cull runs of discarded triangles, enabling shading to be completed earlier in some instances. For example and in one embodiment the cull pipeline logic within the additional fixed function logic 238 can execute position shaders in parallel with the main application and generally generates critical results faster than the full pipeline, as the cull pipeline fetches and shades only the position attribute of the vertices, without performing rasterization and rendering of the pixels to the frame buffer. The cull pipeline can use the generated critical results to compute visibility information for all the triangles without regard to whether those triangles are culled. The full pipeline (which in this instance may be referred to as a replay pipeline) can consume the visibility information to skip the culled triangles to shade only the visible triangles that are finally passed to the rasterization phase.

In one embodiment the additional fixed function logic 238 can also include machine-learning acceleration logic, such as fixed function matrix multiplication logic, for implementations including optimizations for machine learning training or inferencing.

Within each graphics sub-core 221A-221F includes a set of execution resources that may be used to perform graphics, media, and compute operations in response to requests by graphics pipeline, media pipeline, or shader programs. The graphics sub-cores 221A-221F include multiple EU arrays 222A-222F, 224A-224F, thread dispatch and inter-thread communication (TD/IC) logic 223A-223F, a 3D (e.g., texture) sampler 225A-225F, a media sampler 206A-206F, a shader processor 227A-227F, and shared local memory (SLM) 228A-228F. The EU arrays 222A-222F, 224A-224F each include multiple execution units, which are general-purpose graphics processing units capable of performing floating-point and integer/fixed-point logic operations in service of a graphics, media, or compute operation, including graphics, media, or compute shader/GPGPU programs. The TD/IC logic 223A-223F performs local thread dispatch and thread control operations for the execution units within a sub-core and facilitate communication between threads executing on the execution units of the sub-core. The 3D sampler 225A-225F can read texture or other 3D graphics related data into memory. The 3D sampler can read texture data differently based on a configured sample state and the texture format associated with a given texture. The media sampler 206A-206F can perform similar read operations based on the type and format associated with media data. In one embodiment, each graphics sub-core 221A-221F can alternately include a unified 3D and media sampler. Threads executing on the execution units within each of the sub-cores 221A-221F can make use of shared local memory 228A-228F within each sub-core, to enable threads executing within a thread group to execute using a common pool of on-chip memory.

FIG. 2C illustrates a graphics processing unit (GPU) 239 that includes dedicated sets of graphics processing resources arranged into multi-core groups 240A-240N. The details of multi-core group 240A are illustrated. Multi-core groups 240B-240N may be equipped with the same or similar sets of graphics processing resources.

As illustrated, a multi-core group 240A may include a set of graphics cores 243, a set of tensor cores 244, and a set of ray tracing cores 245. A scheduler/dispatcher 241 schedules and dispatches the graphics threads for execution on the various cores 243, 244, 245. In one embodiment the tensor cores 244 are sparse tensor cores with hardware to enable multiplication operations having a zero value input to be bypassed.

A set of register files 242 can store operand values used by the cores 243, 244, 245 when executing the graphics threads. These may include, for example, integer registers for storing integer values, floating point registers for storing floating point values, vector registers for storing packed data elements (integer and/or floating point data elements) and tile registers for storing tensor/matrix values. In one embodiment, the tile registers are implemented as combined sets of vector registers.

One or more combined level 1 (L1) caches and shared memory units 247 store graphics data such as texture data, vertex data, pixel data, ray data, bounding volume data, etc., locally within each multi-core group 240A. One or more texture units 247 can also be used to perform texturing operations, such as texture mapping and sampling. A Level 2 (L2) cache 253 shared by all or a subset of the multi-core groups 240A-240N stores graphics data and/or instructions for multiple concurrent graphics threads. As illustrated, the L2 cache 253 may be shared across a plurality of multi-core groups 240A-240N. One or more memory controllers 248 couple the GPU 239 to a memory 249 which may be a system memory (e.g., DRAM) and/or a dedicated graphics memory (e.g., GDDR6 memory).

Input/output (I/O) circuitry 250 couples the GPU 239 to one or more I/O devices 252 such as digital signal processors (DSPs), network controllers, or user input devices. An on-chip interconnect may be used to couple the I/O devices 252 to the GPU 239 and memory 249. One or more I/O memory management units (IOMMUs) 251 of the I/O circuitry 250 couple the I/O devices 252 directly to the memory 249. In one embodiment, the IOMMU 251 manages multiple sets of page tables to map virtual addresses to physical addresses in memory 249. In this embodiment, the I/O devices 252, CPU(s) 246, and GPU 239 may share the same virtual address space.

In one implementation, the IOMMU 251 supports virtualization. In this case, it may manage a first set of page tables to map guest/graphics virtual addresses to guest/graphics physical addresses and a second set of page tables to map the guest/graphics physical addresses to system/host physical addresses (e.g., within memory 249). The base addresses of each of the first and second sets of page tables may be stored in control registers and swapped out on a context switch (e.g., so that the new context is provided with access to the relevant set of page tables). While not illustrated in FIG. 2C, each of the cores 243, 244, 245 and/or multi-core groups 240A-240N may include translation lookaside buffers (TLBs) to cache guest virtual to guest physical translations, guest physical to host physical translations, and guest virtual to host physical translations.

In one embodiment, the CPUs 246, GPU 239, and I/O devices 252 are integrated on a single semiconductor chip and/or chip package. The memory 249 may be integrated on the same chip or may be coupled to the memory controllers 248 via an off-chip interface. In one implementation, the memory 249 comprises GDDR6 memory which shares the same virtual address space as other physical system-level memories, although the underlying principles of the invention are not limited to this specific implementation.

In one embodiment, the tensor cores 244 include a plurality of execution units specifically designed to perform matrix operations, which are the fundamental compute operation used to perform deep learning operations. For example, simultaneous matrix multiplication operations may be used for neural network training and inferencing. The tensor cores 244 may perform matrix processing using a variety of operand precisions including single precision floating-point (e.g., 32 bits), half-precision floating point (e.g., 16 bits), integer words (16 bits), bytes (8 bits), and half-bytes (4 bits). In one embodiment, a neural network implementation extracts features of each rendered scene, potentially combining details from multiple frames, to construct a high-quality final image.

In deep learning implementations, parallel matrix multiplication work may be scheduled for execution on the tensor cores 244. The training of neural networks, in particular, requires a significant number matrix dot product operations. In order to process an inner-product formulation of an N×N×N matrix multiply, the tensor cores 244 may include at least N dot-product processing elements. Before the matrix multiply begins, one entire matrix is loaded into tile registers and at least one column of a second matrix is loaded each cycle for N cycles. Each cycle, there are N dot products that are processed.

Matrix elements may be stored at different precisions depending on the particular implementation, including 16-bit words, 8-bit bytes (e.g., INT8) and 4-bit half-bytes (e.g., INT4). Different precision modes may be specified for the tensor cores 244 to ensure that the most efficient precision is used for different workloads (e.g., such as inferencing workloads which can tolerate quantization to bytes and half-bytes).

In one embodiment, the ray tracing cores 245 accelerate ray tracing operations for both real-time ray tracing and non-real-time ray tracing implementations. In particular, the ray tracing cores 245 include ray traversal/intersection circuitry for performing ray traversal using bounding volume hierarchies (BVHs) and identifying intersections between rays and primitives enclosed within the BVH volumes. The ray tracing cores 245 may also include circuitry for performing depth testing and culling (e.g., using a Z buffer or similar arrangement). In one implementation, the ray tracing cores 245 perform traversal and intersection operations in concert with the image denoising techniques described herein, at least a portion of which may be executed on the tensor cores 244. For example, in one embodiment, the tensor cores 244 implement a deep learning neural network to perform denoising of frames generated by the ray tracing cores 245. However, the CPU(s) 246, graphics cores 243, and/or ray tracing cores 245 may also implement all or a portion of the denoising and/or deep learning algorithms.

In addition, as described above, a distributed approach to denoising may be employed in which the GPU 239 is in a computing device coupled to other computing devices over a network or high speed interconnect. In this embodiment, the interconnected computing devices share neural network learning/training data to improve the speed with which the overall system learns to perform denoising for different types of image frames and/or different graphics applications.

In one embodiment, the ray tracing cores 245 process all BVH traversal and ray-primitive intersections, saving the graphics cores 243 from being overloaded with thousands of instructions per ray. In one embodiment, each ray tracing core 245 includes a first set of specialized circuitry for performing bounding box tests (e.g., for traversal operations) and a second set of specialized circuitry for performing the ray-triangle intersection tests (e.g., intersecting rays which have been traversed). Thus, in one embodiment, the multi-core group 240A can simply launch a ray probe, and the ray tracing cores 245 independently perform ray traversal and intersection and return hit data (e.g., a hit, no hit, multiple hits, etc.) to the thread context. The other cores 243, 244 are freed to perform other graphics or compute work while the ray tracing cores 245 perform the traversal and intersection operations.

In one embodiment, each ray tracing core 245 includes a traversal unit to perform BVH testing operations and an intersection unit which performs ray-primitive intersection tests. The intersection unit generates a “hit”, “no hit”, or “multiple hit” response, which it provides to the appropriate thread. During the traversal and intersection operations, the execution resources of the other cores (e.g., graphics cores 243 and tensor cores 244) are freed to perform other forms of graphics work.

In one particular embodiment described below, a hybrid rasterization/ray tracing approach is used in which work is distributed between the graphics cores 243 and ray tracing cores 245.

In one embodiment, the ray tracing cores 245 (and/or other cores 243, 244) include hardware support for a ray tracing instruction set such as Microsoft's DirectX Ray Tracing (DXR) which includes a DispatchRays command, as well as ray-generation, closest-hit, any-hit, and miss shaders, which enable the assignment of unique sets of shaders and textures for each object. Another ray tracing platform which may be supported by the ray tracing cores 245, graphics cores 243 and tensor cores 244 is Vulkan 1.1.85. Note, however, that the underlying principles of the invention are not limited to any particular ray tracing ISA.

In general, the various cores 245, 244, 243 may support a ray tracing instruction set that includes instructions/functions for ray generation, closest hit, any hit, ray-primitive intersection, per-primitive and hierarchical bounding box construction, miss, visit, and exceptions. More specifically, one embodiment includes ray tracing instructions to perform the following functions:

Ray Generation—Ray generation instructions may be executed for each pixel, sample, or other user-defined work assignment.

Closest Hit—A closest hit instruction may be executed to locate the closest intersection point of a ray with primitives within a scene.

Any Hit—An any hit instruction identifies multiple intersections between a ray and primitives within a scene, potentially to identify a new closest intersection point.

Intersection—An intersection instruction performs a ray-primitive intersection test and outputs a result.

Per-primitive Bounding box Construction—This instruction builds a bounding box around a given primitive or group of primitives (e.g., when building a new BVH or other acceleration data structure).

Miss—Indicates that a ray misses all geometry within a scene, or specified region of a scene.

Visit—Indicates the children volumes a ray will traverse.

Exceptions—Includes various types of exception handlers (e.g., invoked for various error conditions).

In one embodiment the ray tracing cores 245 may be adapted to accelerate general-purpose compute operations that can be accelerated using computational techniques that are analogous to ray intersection tests. A compute framework can be provided that enables shader programs to be compiled into low level instructions and/or primitives that perform general-purpose compute operations via the ray tracing cores. Exemplary computational problems that can benefit from compute operations performed on the ray tracing cores 245 include computations involving beam, wave, ray, or particle propagation within a coordinate space. Interactions associated with that propagation can be computed relative to a geometry or mesh within the coordinate space. For example, computations associated with electromagnetic signal propagation through an environment can be accelerated via the use of instructions or primitives that are executed via the ray tracing cores. Diffraction and reflection of the signals by objects in the environment can be computed as direct ray-tracing analogies.

Ray tracing cores 245 can also be used to perform computations that are not directly analogous to ray tracing. For example, mesh projection, mesh refinement, and volume sampling computations can be accelerated using the ray tracing cores 245. Generic coordinate space calculations, such as nearest neighbor calculations can also be performed. For example, the set of points near a given point can be discovered by defining a bounding box in the coordinate space around the point. BVH and ray probe logic within the ray tracing cores 245 can then be used to determine the set of point intersections within the bounding box. The intersections constitute the origin point and the nearest neighbors to that origin point. Computations that are performed using the ray tracing cores 245 can be performed in parallel with computations performed on the graphics cores 243 and tensor cores 244. A shader compiler can be configured to compile a compute shader or other general-purpose graphics processing program into low level primitives that can be parallelized across the graphics cores 243, tensor cores 244, and ray tracing cores 245.

FIG. 2D is a block diagram of general purpose graphics processing unit (GPGPU) 270 that can be configured as a graphics processor and/or compute accelerator, according to embodiments described herein. The GPGPU 270 can interconnect with host processors (e.g., one or more CPU(s) 246) and memory 271, 272 via one or more system and/or memory busses. In one embodiment the memory 271 is system memory that may be shared with the one or more CPU(s) 246, while memory 272 is device memory that is dedicated to the GPGPU 270. In one embodiment, components within the GPGPU 270 and memory 272 may be mapped into memory addresses that are accessible to the one or more CPU(s) 246. Access to memory 271 and 272 may be facilitated via a memory controller 268. In one embodiment the memory controller 268 includes an internal direct memory access (DMA) controller 269 or can include logic to perform operations that would otherwise be performed by a DMA controller.

The GPGPU 270 includes multiple cache memories, including an L2 cache 253, L1 cache 254, an instruction cache 255, and shared memory 256, at least a portion of which may also be partitioned as a cache memory. The GPGPU 270 also includes multiple compute units 260A-260N. Each compute unit 260A-260N includes a set of vector registers 261, scalar registers 262, vector logic units 263, and scalar logic units 264. The compute units 260A-260N can also include local shared memory 265 and a program counter 266. The compute units 260A-260N can couple with a constant cache 267, which can be used to store constant data, which is data that will not change during the run of kernel or shader program that executes on the GPGPU 270. In one embodiment the constant cache 267 is a scalar data cache and cached data can be fetched directly into the scalar registers 262.

During operation, the one or more CPU(s) 246 can write commands into registers or memory in the GPGPU 270 that has been mapped into an accessible address space. The command processors 257 can read the commands from registers or memory and determine how those commands will be processed within the GPGPU 270. A thread dispatcher 258 can then be used to dispatch threads to the compute units 260A-260N to perform those commands. Each compute unit 260A-260N can execute threads independently of the other compute units. Additionally each compute unit 260A-260N can be independently configured for conditional computation and can conditionally output the results of computation to memory. The command processors 257 can interrupt the one or more CPU(s) 246 when the submitted commands are complete.

FIGS. 3A-3C illustrate block diagrams of additional graphics processor and compute accelerator architectures provided by embodiments described herein. The elements of FIGS. 3A-3C having the same reference numbers (or names) as the elements of any other figure herein can operate or function in any manner similar to that described elsewhere herein, but are not limited to such.

FIG. 3A is a block diagram of a graphics processor 300, which may be a discrete graphics processing unit, or may be a graphics processor integrated with a plurality of processing cores, or other semiconductor devices such as, but not limited to, memory devices or network interfaces. In some embodiments, the graphics processor communicates via a memory mapped I/O interface to registers on the graphics processor and with commands placed into the processor memory. In some embodiments, graphics processor 300 includes a memory interface 314 to access memory. Memory interface 314 can be an interface to local memory, one or more internal caches, one or more shared external caches, and/or to system memory.

In some embodiments, graphics processor 300 also includes a display controller 302 to drive display output data to a display device 318. Display controller 302 includes hardware for one or more overlay planes for the display and composition of multiple layers of video or user interface elements. The display device 318 can be an internal or external display device. In one embodiment the display device 318 is a head mounted display device, such as a virtual reality (VR) display device or an augmented reality (AR) display device. In some embodiments, graphics processor 300 includes a video codec engine 306 to encode, decode, or transcode media to, from, or between one or more media encoding formats, including, but not limited to Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG) formats such as MPEG-2, Advanced Video Coding (AVC) formats such as H.264/MPEG-4 AVC, H.265/HEVC, Alliance for Open Media (AOMedia) VP8, VP9, as well as the Society of Motion Picture & Television Engineers (SMPTE) 421M/VC-1, and Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) formats such as JPEG, and Motion JPEG (MJPEG) formats.

In some embodiments, graphics processor 300 includes a block image transfer (BLIT) engine 304 to perform two-dimensional (2D) rasterizer operations including, for example, bit-boundary block transfers. However, in one embodiment, 2D graphics operations are performed using one or more components of graphics processing engine (GPE) 310. In some embodiments, GPE 310 is a compute engine for performing graphics operations, including three-dimensional (3D) graphics operations and media operations.

In some embodiments, GPE 310 includes a 3D pipeline 312 for performing 3D operations, such as rendering three-dimensional images and scenes using processing functions that act upon 3D primitive shapes (e.g., rectangle, triangle, etc.). The 3D pipeline 312 includes programmable and fixed function elements that perform various tasks within the element and/or spawn execution threads to a 3D/Media subsystem 315. While 3D pipeline 312 can be used to perform media operations, an embodiment of GPE 310 also includes a media pipeline 316 that is specifically used to perform media operations, such as video post-processing and image enhancement.

In some embodiments, media pipeline 316 includes fixed function or programmable logic units to perform one or more specialized media operations, such as video decode acceleration, video de-interlacing, and video encode acceleration in place of, or on behalf of video codec engine 306. In some embodiments, media pipeline 316 additionally includes a thread spawning unit to spawn threads for execution on 3D/Media subsystem 315. The spawned threads perform computations for the media operations on one or more graphics execution units included in 3D/Media subsystem 315.

In some embodiments, 3D/Media subsystem 315 includes logic for executing threads spawned by 3D pipeline 312 and media pipeline 316. In one embodiment, the pipelines send thread execution requests to 3D/Media subsystem 315, which includes thread dispatch logic for arbitrating and dispatching the various requests to available thread execution resources. The execution resources include an array of graphics execution units to process the 3D and media threads. In some embodiments, 3D/Media subsystem 315 includes one or more internal caches for thread instructions and data. In some embodiments, the subsystem also includes shared memory, including registers and addressable memory, to share data between threads and to store output data.

FIG. 3B illustrates a graphics processor 320 having a tiled architecture, according to embodiments described herein. In one embodiment the graphics processor 320 includes a graphics processing engine cluster 322 having multiple instances of the graphics processing engine 310 of FIG. 3A within a graphics engine tile 310A-310D. Each graphics engine tile 310A-310D can be interconnected via a set of tile interconnects 323A-323F. Each graphics engine tile 310A-310D can also be connected to a memory module or memory device 326A-326D via memory interconnects 325A-325D. The memory devices 326A-326D can use any graphics memory technology. For example, the memory devices 326A-326D may be graphics double data rate (GDDR) memory. The memory devices 326A-326D, in one embodiment, are high-bandwidth memory (HBM) modules that can be on-die with their respective graphics engine tile 310A-310D. In one embodiment the memory devices 326A-326D are stacked memory devices that can be stacked on top of their respective graphics engine tile 310A-310D. In one embodiment, each graphics engine tile 310A-310D and associated memory 326A-326D reside on separate chiplets, which are bonded to a base die or base substrate, as described on further detail in FIGS. 11B-11D.

The graphics processor 320 may be configured with a non-uniform memory access (NUMA) system in which memory devices 326A-326D are coupled with associated graphics engine tiles 310A-310D. A given memory device may be accessed by graphics engine tiles other than the tile to which it is directly connected. However, access latency to the memory devices 326A-326D may be lowest when accessing a local tile. In one embodiment, a cache coherent NUMA (ccNUMA) system is enabled that uses the tile interconnects 323A-323F to enable communication between cache controllers within the graphics engine tiles 310A-310D to maintain a consistent memory image when more than one cache stores the same memory location.

The graphics processing engine cluster 322 can connect with an on-chip or on-package fabric interconnect 324. In one embodiment the fabric interconnect 324 includes a network processor, network on a chip (NoC), or another switching processor to enable the fabric interconnect 324 to act as a packet switched fabric interconnect that switches data packets between components of the graphics processor 320. The fabric interconnect 324 can enable communication between graphics engine tiles 310A-310D and components such as the video codec engine 306 and one or more copy engines 304. The copy engines 304 can be used to move data out of, into, and between the memory devices 326A-326D and memory that is external to the graphics processor 320 (e.g., system memory). The fabric interconnect 324 can also couple with one or more of the tile interconnects 323A-323F to facilitate or enhance the interconnection between the graphics engine tiles 310A-310D. The fabric interconnect 324 is also configurable to interconnect multiple instances of the graphics processor 320 (e.g., via the host interface 328), enabling tile-to-tile communication between graphics engine tiles 310A-310D of multiple GPUs. In one embodiment, the graphics engine tiles 310A-310D of multiple GPUs can be presented to a host system as a single logical device.

The graphics processor 320 may optionally include a display controller 302 to enable a connection with the display device 318. The graphics processor may also be configured as a graphics or compute accelerator. In the accelerator configuration, the display controller 302 and display device 318 may be omitted.

The graphics processor 320 can connect to a host system via a host interface 328. The host interface 328 can enable communication between the graphics processor 320, system memory, and/or other system components. The host interface 328 can be, for example a PCI express bus or another type of host system interface. For example, the host interface 328 may be an NVLink or NVSwitch interface. The host interface 328 and fabric interconnect 324 can cooperate to enable multiple instances of the graphics processor 320 to act as single logical device. Cooperation between the host interface 328 and fabric interconnect 324 can also enable the individual graphics engine tiles 310A-310D to be presented to the host system as distinct logical graphics devices.

FIG. 3C illustrates a compute accelerator 330, according to embodiments described herein. The compute accelerator 330 can include architectural similarities with the graphics processor 320 of FIG. 3B and is optimized for compute acceleration. A compute engine cluster 332 can include a set of compute engine tiles 340A-340D that include execution logic that is optimized for parallel or vector-based general-purpose compute operations. In some embodiments, the compute engine tiles 340A-340D do not include fixed function graphics processing logic, although in one embodiment one or more of the compute engine tiles 340A-340D can include logic to perform media acceleration. The compute engine tiles 340A-340D can connect to memory 326A-326D via memory interconnects 325A-325D. The memory 326A-326D and memory interconnects 325A-325D may be similar technology as in graphics processor 320, or can be different. The graphics compute engine tiles 340A-340D can also be interconnected via a set of tile interconnects 323A-323F and may be connected with and/or interconnected by a fabric interconnect 324. Cross-tile communications can be facilitated via the fabric interconnect 324. The fabric interconnect 324 (e.g., via the host interface 328) can also facilitate communication between compute engine tiles 340A-340D of multiple instances of the compute accelerator 330. In one embodiment the compute accelerator 330 includes a large L3 cache 336 that can be configured as a device-wide cache. The compute accelerator 330 can also connect to a host processor and memory via a host interface 328 in a similar manner as the graphics processor 320 of FIG. 3B.

The compute accelerator 330 can also include an integrated network interface 342. In one embodiment the network interface 342 includes a network processor and controller logic that enables the compute engine cluster 332 to communicate over a physical layer interconnect 344 without requiring data to traverse memory of a host system. In one embodiment, one of the compute engine tiles 340A-340D is replaced by network processor logic and data to be transmitted or received via the physical layer interconnect 344 may be transmitted directly to or from memory 326A-326D. Multiple instances of the compute accelerator 330 may be joined via the physical layer interconnect 344 into a single logical device. Alternatively, the various compute engine tiles 340A-340D may be presented as distinct network accessible compute accelerator devices.

Graphics Processing Engine

FIG. 4 is a block diagram of a graphics processing engine 410 of a graphics processor in accordance with some embodiments. In one embodiment, the graphics processing engine (GPE) 410 is a version of the GPE 310 shown in FIG. 3A, and may also represent a graphics engine tile 310A-310D of FIG. 3B. Elements of FIG. 4 having the same reference numbers (or names) as the elements of any other figure herein can operate or function in any manner similar to that described elsewhere herein, but are not limited to such. For example, the 3D pipeline 312 and media pipeline 316 of FIG. 3A are illustrated. The media pipeline 316 is optional in some embodiments of the GPE 410 and may not be explicitly included within the GPE 410. For example and in at least one embodiment, a separate media and/or image processor is coupled to the GPE 410.

In some embodiments, GPE 410 couples with or includes a command streamer 403, which provides a command stream to the 3D pipeline 312 and/or media pipelines 316. Alternatively or additionally, the command streamer 403 may be directly coupled to a unified return buffer 418. The unified return buffer 418 may be communicatively coupled to a graphics core array 414. In some embodiments, command streamer 403 is coupled with memory, which can be system memory, or one or more of internal cache memory and shared cache memory. In some embodiments, command streamer 403 receives commands from the memory and sends the commands to 3D pipeline 312 and/or media pipeline 316. The commands are directives fetched from a ring buffer, which stores commands for the 3D pipeline 312 and media pipeline 316. In one embodiment, the ring buffer can additionally include batch command buffers storing batches of multiple commands. The commands for the 3D pipeline 312 can also include references to data stored in memory, such as but not limited to vertex and geometry data for the 3D pipeline 312 and/or image data and memory objects for the media pipeline 316. The 3D pipeline 312 and media pipeline 316 process the commands and data by performing operations via logic within the respective pipelines or by dispatching one or more execution threads to a graphics core array 414. In one embodiment the graphics core array 414 include one or more blocks of graphics cores (e.g., graphics core(s) 415A, graphics core(s) 415B), each block including one or more graphics cores. Each graphics core includes a set of graphics execution resources that includes general-purpose and graphics specific execution logic to perform graphics and compute operations, as well as fixed function texture processing and/or machine learning and artificial intelligence acceleration logic.

In various embodiments the 3D pipeline 312 can include fixed function and programmable logic to process one or more shader programs, such as vertex shaders, geometry shaders, pixel shaders, fragment shaders, compute shaders, or other shader and/or GPGPU programs, by processing the instructions and dispatching execution threads to the graphics core array 414. The graphics core array 414 provides a unified block of execution resources for use in processing these shader programs. Multi-purpose execution logic (e.g., execution units) within the graphics core(s) 415A-414B of the graphics core array 414 includes support for various 3D API shader languages and can execute multiple simultaneous execution threads associated with multiple shaders.

In some embodiments, the graphics core array 414 includes execution logic to perform media functions, such as video and/or image processing. In one embodiment, the execution units include general-purpose logic that is programmable to perform parallel general-purpose computational operations, in addition to graphics processing operations. The general-purpose logic can perform processing operations in parallel or in conjunction with general-purpose logic within the processor core(s) 107 of FIG. 1 or core 202A-202N as in FIG. 2A.

Output data generated by threads executing on the graphics core array 414 can output data to memory in a unified return buffer (URB) 418. The URB 418 can store data for multiple threads. In some embodiments the URB 418 may be used to send data between different threads executing on the graphics core array 414. In some embodiments the URB 418 may additionally be used for synchronization between threads on the graphics core array and fixed function logic within the shared function logic 420.

In some embodiments, graphics core array 414 is scalable, such that the array includes a variable number of graphics cores, each having a variable number of execution units based on the target power and performance level of GPE 410. In one embodiment the execution resources are dynamically scalable, such that execution resources may be enabled or disabled as needed.

The graphics core array 414 couples with shared function logic 420 that includes multiple resources that are shared between the graphics cores in the graphics core array. The shared functions within the shared function logic 420 are hardware logic units that provide specialized supplemental functionality to the graphics core array 414. In various embodiments, shared function logic 420 includes but is not limited to sampler 421, math 422, and inter-thread communication (ITC) 423 logic. Additionally, some embodiments implement one or more cache(s) 425 within the shared function logic 420.

A shared function is implemented at least in a case where the demand for a given specialized function is insufficient for inclusion within the graphics core array 414. Instead a single instantiation of that specialized function is implemented as a stand-alone entity in the shared function logic 420 and shared among the execution resources within the graphics core array 414. The precise set of functions that are shared between the graphics core array 414 and included within the graphics core array 414 varies across embodiments. In some embodiments, specific shared functions within the shared function logic 420 that are used extensively by the graphics core array 414 may be included within shared function logic 416 within the graphics core array 414. In various embodiments, the shared function logic 416 within the graphics core array 414 can include some or all logic within the shared function logic 420. In one embodiment, all logic elements within the shared function logic 420 may be duplicated within the shared function logic 416 of the graphics core array 414. In one embodiment the shared function logic 420 is excluded in favor of the shared function logic 416 within the graphics core array 414.

Execution Units

FIGS. 5A-5B illustrate thread execution logic 500 including an array of processing elements employed in a graphics processor core according to embodiments described herein. Elements of FIGS. 5A-5B having the same reference numbers (or names) as the elements of any other figure herein can operate or function in any manner similar to that described elsewhere herein, but are not limited to such. FIG. 5A-5B illustrates an overview of thread execution logic 500, which may be representative of hardware logic illustrated with each sub-core 221A-221F of FIG. 2B. FIG. 5A is representative of an execution unit within a general-purpose graphics processor, while FIG. 5B is representative of an execution unit that may be used within a compute accelerator.

As illustrated in FIG. 5A, in some embodiments thread execution logic 500 includes a shader processor 502, a thread dispatcher 504, instruction cache 506, a scalable execution unit array including a plurality of graphics execution units 508A-508N, a sampler 510, shared local memory 511, a data cache 512, and a data port 514. In one embodiment the scalable execution unit array can dynamically scale by enabling or disabling one or more execution units (e.g., any of graphics execution units 508A, 508B, 508C, 508D, through 508N-1 and 508N) based on the computational requirements of a workload. In one embodiment the included components are interconnected via an interconnect fabric that links to each of the components. In some embodiments, thread execution logic 500 includes one or more connections to memory, such as system memory or cache memory, through one or more of instruction cache 506, data port 514, sampler 510, and graphics execution units 508A-508N. In some embodiments, each execution unit (e.g. 508A) is a stand-alone programmable general-purpose computational unit that is capable of executing multiple simultaneous hardware threads while processing multiple data elements in parallel for each thread. In various embodiments, the array of graphics execution units 508A-508N is scalable to include any number individual execution units.

In some embodiments, the graphics execution units 508A-508N are primarily used to execute shader programs. A shader processor 502 can process the various shader programs and dispatch execution threads associated with the shader programs via a thread dispatcher 504. In one embodiment the thread dispatcher includes logic to arbitrate thread initiation requests from the graphics and media pipelines and instantiate the requested threads on one or more execution unit in the graphics execution units 508A-508N. For example, a geometry pipeline can dispatch vertex, tessellation, or geometry shaders to the thread execution logic for processing. In some embodiments, thread dispatcher 504 can also process runtime thread spawning requests from the executing shader programs.

In some embodiments, the graphics execution units 508A-508N support an instruction set that includes native support for many standard 3D graphics shader instructions, such that shader programs from graphics libraries (e.g., Direct 3D and OpenGL) are executed with a minimal translation. The execution units support vertex and geometry processing (e.g., vertex programs, geometry programs, vertex shaders), pixel processing (e.g., pixel shaders, fragment shaders) and general-purpose processing (e.g., compute and media shaders). Each of the execution units 508A-508N is capable of multi-issue single instruction multiple data (SIMD) execution and multi-threaded operation enables an efficient execution environment in the face of higher latency memory accesses. Each hardware thread within each execution unit has a dedicated high-bandwidth register file and associated independent thread-state. Execution is multi-issue per clock to pipelines capable of integer, single and double precision floating point operations, SIMD branch capability, logical operations, transcendental operations, and other miscellaneous operations. While waiting for data from memory or one of the shared functions, dependency logic within the graphics execution units 508A-508N causes a waiting thread to sleep until the requested data has been returned. While the waiting thread is sleeping, hardware resources may be devoted to processing other threads. For example, during a delay associated with a vertex shader operation, an execution unit can perform operations for a pixel shader, fragment shader, or another type of shader program, including a different vertex shader. Various embodiments can apply to use execution by use of Single Instruction Multiple Thread (SIMT) as an alternate to use of SIMD or in addition to use of SIMD. Reference to a SIMD core or operation can apply also to SIMT or apply to SIMD in combination with SIMT.

Each execution unit in graphics execution units 508A-508N operates on arrays of data elements. The number of data elements is the “execution size,” or the number of channels for the instruction. An execution channel is a logical unit of execution for data element access, masking, and flow control within instructions. The number of channels may be independent of the number of physical Arithmetic Logic Units (ALUs), Floating Point Units (FPUs), or other logic units (e.g., tensor cores, ray tracing cores, etc.) for a particular graphics processor. In some embodiments, graphics execution units 508A-508N support integer and floating-point data types.

The execution unit instruction set includes SIMD instructions. The various data elements can be stored as a packed data type in a register and the execution unit will process the various elements based on the data size of the elements. For example, when operating on a 256-bit wide vector, the 256 bits of the vector are stored in a register and the execution unit operates on the vector as four separate 54-bit packed data elements (Quad-Word (QW) size data elements), eight separate 32-bit packed data elements (Double Word (DW) size data elements), sixteen separate 16-bit packed data elements (Word (W) size data elements), or thirty-two separate 8-bit data elements (byte (B) size data elements). However, different vector widths and register sizes are possible.

In one embodiment one or more execution units can be combined into a fused execution unit 509A-509N having thread control logic (507A-507N) that is common to the fused EUs. Multiple EUs can be fused into an EU group. Each EU in the fused EU group can be configured to execute a separate SIMD hardware thread. The number of EUs in a fused EU group can vary according to embodiments. Additionally, various SIMD widths can be performed per-EU, including but not limited to SIMD8, SIMD16, and SIMD32. Each fused graphics execution unit 509A-509N includes at least two execution units. For example, fused execution unit 509A includes a first EU 508A, second EU 508B, and thread control logic 507A that is common to the first EU 508A and the second EU 508B. The thread control logic 507A controls threads executed on the fused graphics execution unit 509A, allowing each EU within the fused execution units 509A-509N to execute using a common instruction pointer register.

One or more internal instruction caches (e.g., 506) are included in the thread execution logic 500 to cache thread instructions for the execution units. In some embodiments, one or more data caches (e.g., 512) are included to cache thread data during thread execution. Threads executing on the execution logic 500 can also store explicitly managed data in the shared local memory 511. In some embodiments, a sampler 510 is included to provide texture sampling for 3D operations and media sampling for media operations. In some embodiments, sampler 510 includes specialized texture or media sampling functionality to process texture or media data during the sampling process before providing the sampled data to an execution unit.

During execution, the graphics and media pipelines send thread initiation requests to thread execution logic 500 via thread spawning and dispatch logic. Once a group of geometric objects has been processed and rasterized into pixel data, pixel processor logic (e.g., pixel shader logic, fragment shader logic, etc.) within the shader processor 502 is invoked to further compute output information and cause results to be written to output surfaces (e.g., color buffers, depth buffers, stencil buffers, etc.). In some embodiments, a pixel shader or fragment shader calculates the values of the various vertex attributes that are to be interpolated across the rasterized object. In some embodiments, pixel processor logic within the shader processor 502 then executes an application programming interface (API)—supplied pixel or fragment shader program. To execute the shader program, the shader processor 502 dispatches threads to an execution unit (e.g., 508A) via thread dispatcher 504. In some embodiments, shader processor 502 uses texture sampling logic in the sampler 510 to access texture data in texture maps stored in memory. Arithmetic operations on the texture data and the input geometry data compute pixel color data for each geometric fragment, or discards one or more pixels from further processing.

In some embodiments, the data port 514 provides a memory access mechanism for the thread execution logic 500 to output processed data to memory for further processing on a graphics processor output pipeline. In some embodiments, the data port 514 includes or couples to one or more cache memories (e.g., data cache 512) to cache data for memory access via the data port.

In one embodiment, the execution logic 500 can also include a ray tracer 505 that can provide ray tracing acceleration functionality. The ray tracer 505 can support a ray tracing instruction set that includes instructions/functions for ray generation. The ray tracing instruction set can be similar to or different from the ray-tracing instruction set supported by the ray tracing cores 245 in FIG. 2C.

FIG. 5B illustrates exemplary internal details of an execution unit 508, according to embodiments. A graphics execution unit 508 can include an instruction fetch unit 537, a general register file array (GRF) 524, an architectural register file array (ARF) 526, a thread arbiter 522, a send unit 530, a branch unit 532, a set of SIMD floating point units (FPUs) 534, and in one embodiment a set of dedicated integer SIMD ALUs 535. The GRF 524 and ARF 526 includes the set of general register files and architecture register files associated with each simultaneous hardware thread that may be active in the graphics execution unit 508. In one embodiment, per thread architectural state is maintained in the ARF 526, while data used during thread execution is stored in the GRF 524. The execution state of each thread, including the instruction pointers for each thread, can be held in thread-specific registers in the ARF 526.

In one embodiment the graphics execution unit 508 has an architecture that is a combination of Simultaneous Multi-Threading (SMT) and fine-grained Interleaved Multi-Threading (IMT). The architecture has a modular configuration that can be fine-tuned at design time based on a target number of simultaneous threads and number of registers per execution unit, where execution unit resources are divided across logic used to execute multiple simultaneous threads. The number of logical threads that may be executed by the graphics execution unit 508 is not limited to the number of hardware threads, and multiple logical threads can be assigned to each hardware thread.

In one embodiment, the graphics execution unit 508 can co-issue multiple instructions, which may each be different instructions. The thread arbiter 522 of the graphics execution unit thread 508 can dispatch the instructions to one of the send unit 530, branch unit 532, or SIMD FPU(s) 534 for execution. Each execution thread can access 128 general-purpose registers within the GRF 524, where each register can store 32 bytes, accessible as a SIMD 8-element vector of 32-bit data elements. In one embodiment, each execution unit thread has access to 4 Kbytes within the GRF 524, although embodiments are not so limited, and greater or fewer register resources may be provided in other embodiments. In one embodiment the graphics execution unit 508 is partitioned into seven hardware threads that can independently perform computational operations, although the number of threads per execution unit can also vary according to embodiments. For example, in one embodiment up to 16 hardware threads are supported. In an embodiment in which seven threads may access 4 Kbytes, the GRF 524 can store a total of 28 Kbytes. Where 16 threads may access 4 Kbytes, the GRF 524 can store a total of 64 Kbytes. Flexible addressing modes can permit registers to be addressed together to build effectively wider registers or to represent strided rectangular block data structures.

In one embodiment, memory operations, sampler operations, and other longer-latency system communications are dispatched via “send” instructions that are executed by the message passing send unit 530. In one embodiment, branch instructions are dispatched to a dedicated branch unit 532 to facilitate SIMD divergence and eventual convergence.

In one embodiment the graphics execution unit 508 includes one or more SIMD floating point units (FPU(s)) 534 to perform floating-point operations. In one embodiment, the FPU(s) 534 also support integer computation. In one embodiment the FPU(s) 534 can SIMD execute up to M number of 32-bit floating-point (or integer) operations, or SIMD execute up to 2M 16-bit integer or 16-bit floating-point operations. In one embodiment, at least one of the FPU(s) provides extended math capability to support high-throughput transcendental math functions and double precision 54-bit floating-point. In some embodiments, a set of 8-bit integer SIMD ALUs 535 are also present, and may be specifically optimized to perform operations associated with machine learning computations.

In one embodiment, arrays of multiple instances of the graphics execution unit 508 can be instantiated in a graphics sub-core grouping (e.g., a sub-slice). For scalability, product architects can choose the exact number of execution units per sub-core grouping. In one embodiment the execution unit 508 can execute instructions across a plurality of execution channels. In a further embodiment, each thread executed on the graphics execution unit 508 is executed on a different channel.

FIG. 6 illustrates an additional execution unit 600, according to an embodiment. The execution unit 600 may be a compute-optimized execution unit for use in, for example, a compute engine tile 340A-340D as in FIG. 3C, but is not limited as such. Variants of the execution unit 600 may also be used in a graphics engine tile 310A-310D as in FIG. 3B. In one embodiment, the execution unit 600 includes a thread control unit 601, a thread state unit 602, an instruction fetch/prefetch unit 603, and an instruction decode unit 604. The execution unit 600 additionally includes a register file 606 that stores registers that can be assigned to hardware threads within the execution unit. The execution unit 600 additionally includes a send unit 607 and a branch unit 608. In one embodiment, the send unit 607 and branch unit 608 can operate similarly as the send unit 530 and a branch unit 532 of the graphics execution unit 508 of FIG. 5B.

The execution unit 600 also includes a compute unit 610 that includes multiple different types of functional units. The compute unit 610 can include an ALU 611, a systolic array 612, and a math unit 613. The ALU 611 includes an array of arithmetic logic units. The ALU 611 can be configured to perform 64-bit, 32-bit, and 16-bit integer and floating point operations across multiple processing lanes and data channels and for multiple hardware and/or software threads. The ALU 611 can perform integer and floating point operations simultaneously (e.g., within the same clock cycle).

The systolic array 612 includes a W wide and D deep network of data processing units that can be used to perform vector or other data-parallel operations in a systolic manner. In one embodiment the systolic array 612 can be configured to perform various matrix operations, including as dot product, outer product, and general matrix-matrix multiplication (GEMM) operations. In one embodiment the systolic array 612 supports 16-bit floating point operations, as well as 8-bit, 4-bit, 2-bit, and binary integer operations. The systolic array 612 can be configured to accelerate specific machine learning operations, in addition to matrix multiply operations. In such embodiments, the systolic array 612 can be configured with support for the bfloat (brain floating point) 16-bit floating point format or a tensor float 32-bit floating point format (TF32) that have different numbers of mantissa and exponent bits relative to Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 754 formats.

The systolic array 612 includes hardware to accelerate sparse matrix operations. In one embodiment, multiplication operations for sparse regions of input data can be bypassed at the processing element level by skipping multiply operations that have a zero value operand. In on embodiment, sparsity within input matrices can be detected and operations having known output values can be bypassed before being submitted to the processing elements of the systolic array 612. Additionally, the loading of zero value operands into the processing elements can be bypassed and the processing elements can be configured to perform multiplications on the non-zero value input elements. Output can be generated in a compressed (e.g., dense) format, with associated decompression or decoding metadata. The output can be cached in the compressed format. The output can be maintained in the compressed format when written to local memory or host system memory. The output may also be decompressed before being written to local memory or host system memory.

In one embodiment, the systolic array 612 includes hardware to enable operations on sparse data having a compressed representation. A compressed representation of a sparse matrix stores non-zero values and metadata that identifies the positions of the non-zero values within the matrix. Exemplary compressed representations include but are not limited to compressed tensor representations such as compressed sparse row (CSR), compressed sparse column (CSC), compressed sparse fiber (CSF) representations. Support for compressed representations enable operations to be performed on input in a compressed tensor format without requiring the compressed representation to be decompressed or decoded. In such embodiment, operations can be performed only on non-zero input values and the resulting non-zero output values can be mapped into an output matrix. In some embodiments, hardware support is also provided for machine-specific lossless data compression formats that are used when transmitting data within hardware or across system busses. Such data may be retained in a compressed format for sparse input data and the systolic array 612 can used the compression metadata for the compressed data to enable operations to be performed on only non-zero values, or to enable blocks of zero data input to be bypassed for multiply operations.

In one embodiment, a math unit 613 can be included to perform a specific subset of mathematical operations in an efficient and lower-power manner than the ALU 611. The math unit 613 can include a variant of math logic that may be found in shared function logic of a graphics processing engine provided by other embodiments (e.g., math logic 422 of the shared function logic 420 of FIG. 4 ). In one embodiment the math unit 613 can be configured to perform 32-bit and 64-bit floating point operations.

The thread control unit 601 includes logic to control the execution of threads within the execution unit. The thread control unit 601 can include thread arbitration logic to start, stop, and preempt execution of threads within the execution unit 600. The thread state unit 602 can be used to store thread state for threads assigned to execute on the execution unit 600. Storing the thread state within the execution unit 600 enables the rapid pre-emption of threads when those threads become blocked or idle. The instruction fetch/prefetch unit 603 can fetch instructions from an instruction cache of higher-level execution logic (e.g., instruction cache 506 as in FIG. 5A). The instruction fetch/prefetch unit 603 can also issue prefetch requests for instructions to be loaded into the instruction cache based on an analysis of currently executing threads. The instruction decode unit 604 can be used to decode instructions to be executed by the compute units. In one embodiment, the instruction decode unit 604 can be used as a secondary decoder to decode complex instructions into constituent micro-operations.

The execution unit 600 additionally includes a register file 606 that can be used by hardware threads executing on the execution unit 600. Registers in the register file 606 can be divided across the logic used to execute multiple simultaneous threads within the compute unit 610 of the execution unit 600. The number of logical threads that may be executed by the graphics execution unit 600 is not limited to the number of hardware threads, and multiple logical threads can be assigned to each hardware thread. The size of the register file 606 can vary across embodiments based on the number of supported hardware threads. In one embodiment, register renaming may be used to dynamically allocate registers to hardware threads.

FIG. 7 is a block diagram illustrating graphics processor instruction formats 700 according to some embodiments. In one or more embodiment, the graphics processor execution units support an instruction set having instructions in multiple formats. The solid lined boxes illustrate the components that are generally included in an execution unit instruction, while the dashed lines include components that are optional or that are only included in a sub-set of the instructions. In some embodiments, the graphics processor instruction format 700 described and illustrated are macro-instructions, in that they are instructions supplied to the execution unit, as opposed to micro-operations resulting from instruction decode once the instruction is processed. Thus, a single instructions may cause hardware to perform multiple micro-operations.

In some embodiments, the graphics processor execution units natively support instructions in a 128-bit instruction format 710. A 64-bit compacted instruction format 730 is available for some instructions based on the selected instruction, instruction options, and number of operands. The native 128-bit instruction format 710 provides access to all instruction options, while some options and operations are restricted in the 64-bit format 730. The native instructions available in the 64-bit format 730 vary by embodiment. In some embodiments, the instruction is compacted in part using a set of index values in an index field 713. The execution unit hardware references a set of compaction tables based on the index values and uses the compaction table outputs to reconstruct a native instruction in the 128-bit instruction format 710. Other sizes and formats of instruction can be used.

For each format, instruction opcode 712 defines the operation that the execution unit is to perform. The execution units execute each instruction in parallel across the multiple data elements of each operand. For example, in response to an add instruction the execution unit performs a simultaneous add operation across each color channel representing a texture element or picture element. By default, the execution unit performs each instruction across all data channels of the operands. In some embodiments, instruction control field 714 enables control over certain execution options, such as channels selection (e.g., predication) and data channel order (e.g., swizzle). For instructions in the 128-bit instruction format 710 an exec-size field 716 limits the number of data channels that will be executed in parallel. In some embodiments, exec-size field 716 is not available for use in the 64-bit compact instruction format 730.

Some execution unit instructions have up to three operands including two source operands, src0 720, src1 722, and one destination 718. In some embodiments, the execution units support dual destination instructions, where one of the destinations is implied. Data manipulation instructions can have a third source operand (e.g., SRC2 724), where the instruction opcode 712 determines the number of source operands. An instruction's last source operand can be an immediate (e.g., hard-coded) value passed with the instruction.

In some embodiments, the 128-bit instruction format 710 includes an access/address mode field 726 specifying, for example, whether direct register addressing mode or indirect register addressing mode is used. When direct register addressing mode is used, the register address of one or more operands is directly provided by bits in the instruction.

In some embodiments, the 128-bit instruction format 710 includes an access/address mode field 726, which specifies an address mode and/or an access mode for the instruction. In one embodiment the access mode is used to define a data access alignment for the instruction. Some embodiments support access modes including a 16-byte aligned access mode and a 1-byte aligned access mode, where the byte alignment of the access mode determines the access alignment of the instruction operands. For example, when in a first mode, the instruction may use byte-aligned addressing for source and destination operands and when in a second mode, the instruction may use 16-byte-aligned addressing for all source and destination operands.

In one embodiment, the address mode portion of the access/address mode field 726 determines whether the instruction is to use direct or indirect addressing. When direct register addressing mode is used bits in the instruction directly provide the register address of one or more operands. When indirect register addressing mode is used, the register address of one or more operands may be computed based on an address register value and an address immediate field in the instruction.

In some embodiments instructions are grouped based on opcode 712 bit-fields to simplify Opcode decode 740. For an 8-bit opcode, bits 4, 5, and 6 allow the execution unit to determine the type of opcode. The precise opcode grouping shown is merely an example. In some embodiments, a move and logic opcode group 742 includes data movement and logic instructions (e.g., move (mov), compare (cmp)). In some embodiments, move and logic group 742 shares the five most significant bits (MSB), where move (mov) instructions are in the form of 0000xxxxb and logic instructions are in the form of 0001xxxxb. A flow control instruction group 744 (e.g., call, jump (jmp)) includes instructions in the form of 0010xxxxb (e.g., 0x20). A miscellaneous instruction group 746 includes a mix of instructions, including synchronization instructions (e.g., wait, send) in the form of 0011xxxxb (e.g., 0x30). A parallel math instruction group 748 includes component-wise arithmetic instructions (e.g., add, multiply (mul)) in the form of 0100xxxxb (e.g., 0x40). The parallel math instruction group 748 performs the arithmetic operations in parallel across data channels. The vector math group 750 includes arithmetic instructions (e.g., dp4) in the form of 0101xxxxb (e.g., 0x50). The vector math group performs arithmetic such as dot product calculations on vector operands. The illustrated opcode decode 740, in one embodiment, can be used to determine which portion of an execution unit will be used to execute a decoded instruction. For example, some instructions may be designated as systolic instructions that will be performed by a systolic array. Other instructions, such as ray-tracing instructions (not shown) can be routed to a ray-tracing core or ray-tracing logic within a slice or partition of execution logic.

Graphics Pipeline

FIG. 8 is a block diagram of another embodiment of a graphics processor 800. Elements of FIG. 8 having the same reference numbers (or names) as the elements of any other figure herein can operate or function in any manner similar to that described elsewhere herein, but are not limited to such.

In some embodiments, graphics processor 800 includes a geometry pipeline 820, a media pipeline 830, a display engine 840, thread execution logic 850, and a render output pipeline 870. In some embodiments, graphics processor 800 is a graphics processor within a multi-core processing system that includes one or more general-purpose processing cores. The graphics processor is controlled by register writes to one or more control registers (not shown) or via commands issued to graphics processor 800 via a ring interconnect 802. In some embodiments, ring interconnect 802 couples graphics processor 800 to other processing components, such as other graphics processors or general-purpose processors. Commands from ring interconnect 802 are interpreted by a command streamer 803, which supplies instructions to individual components of the geometry pipeline 820 or the media pipeline 830.

In some embodiments, command streamer 803 directs the operation of a vertex fetcher 805 that reads vertex data from memory and executes vertex-processing commands provided by command streamer 803. In some embodiments, vertex fetcher 805 provides vertex data to a vertex shader 807, which performs coordinate space transformation and lighting operations to each vertex. In some embodiments, vertex fetcher 805 and vertex shader 807 execute vertex-processing instructions by dispatching execution threads to execution units 852A-852B via a thread dispatcher 831.

In some embodiments, execution units 852A-852B are an array of vector processors having an instruction set for performing graphics and media operations. In some embodiments, execution units 852A-852B have an attached L1 cache 851 that is specific for each array or shared between the arrays. The cache can be configured as a data cache, an instruction cache, or a single cache that is partitioned to contain data and instructions in different partitions.

In some embodiments, geometry pipeline 820 includes tessellation components to perform hardware-accelerated tessellation of 3D objects. In some embodiments, a programmable hull shader 811 configures the tessellation operations. A programmable domain shader 817 provides back-end evaluation of tessellation output. A tessellator 813 operates at the direction of hull shader 811 and contains special purpose logic to generate a set of detailed geometric objects based on a coarse geometric model that is provided as input to geometry pipeline 820. In some embodiments, if tessellation is not used, tessellation components (e.g., hull shader 811, tessellator 813, and domain shader 817) can be bypassed. The tessellation components can operate based on data received from the vertex shader 807.

In some embodiments, complete geometric objects can be processed by a geometry shader 819 via one or more threads dispatched to execution units 852A-852B, or can proceed directly to the clipper 829. In some embodiments, the geometry shader operates on entire geometric objects, rather than vertices or patches of vertices as in previous stages of the graphics pipeline. If the tessellation is disabled the geometry shader 819 receives input from the vertex shader 807. In some embodiments, geometry shader 819 is programmable by a geometry shader program to perform geometry tessellation if the tessellation units are disabled.

Before rasterization, a clipper 829 processes vertex data. The clipper 829 may be a fixed function clipper or a programmable clipper having clipping and geometry shader functions. In some embodiments, a rasterizer and depth test component 873 in the render output pipeline 870 dispatches pixel shaders to convert the geometric objects into per pixel representations. In some embodiments, pixel shader logic is included in thread execution logic 850. In some embodiments, an application can bypass the rasterizer and depth test component 873 and access un-rasterized vertex data via a stream out unit 823.

The graphics processor 800 has an interconnect bus, interconnect fabric, or some other interconnect mechanism that allows data and message passing amongst the major components of the processor. In some embodiments, execution units 852A-852B and associated logic units (e.g., L1 cache 851, sampler 854, texture cache 858, etc.) interconnect via a data port 856 to perform memory access and communicate with render output pipeline components of the processor. In some embodiments, sampler 854, caches 851, 858 and execution units 852A-852B each have separate memory access paths. In one embodiment the texture cache 858 can also be configured as a sampler cache.

In some embodiments, render output pipeline 870 contains a rasterizer and depth test component 873 that converts vertex-based objects into an associated pixel-based representation. In some embodiments, the rasterizer logic includes a windower/masker unit to perform fixed function triangle and line rasterization. An associated render cache 878 and depth cache 879 are also available in some embodiments. A pixel operations component 877 performs pixel-based operations on the data, though in some instances, pixel operations associated with 2D operations (e.g. bit block image transfers with blending) are performed by the 2D engine 841, or substituted at display time by the display controller 843 using overlay display planes. In some embodiments, a shared L3 cache 875 is available to all graphics components, allowing the sharing of data without the use of main system memory.

In some embodiments, media pipeline 830 includes a media engine 837 and a video front-end 834. In some embodiments, video front-end 834 receives pipeline commands from the command streamer 803. In some embodiments, media pipeline 830 includes a separate command streamer. In some embodiments, video front-end 834 processes media commands before sending the command to the media engine 837. In some embodiments, media engine 837 includes thread spawning functionality to spawn threads for dispatch to thread execution logic 850 via thread dispatcher 831.

In some embodiments, graphics processor 800 includes a display engine 840. In some embodiments, display engine 840 is external to processor 800 and couples with the graphics processor via the ring interconnect 802, or some other interconnect bus or fabric. In some embodiments, display engine 840 includes a 2D engine 841 and a display controller 843. In some embodiments, display engine 840 contains special purpose logic capable of operating independently of the 3D pipeline. In some embodiments, display controller 843 couples with a display device (not shown), which may be a system integrated display device, as in a laptop computer, or an external display device attached via a display device connector.

In some embodiments, the geometry pipeline 820 and media pipeline 830 are configurable to perform operations based on multiple graphics and media programming interfaces and are not specific to any one application programming interface (API). In some embodiments, driver software for the graphics processor translates API calls that are specific to a particular graphics or media library into commands that can be processed by the graphics processor. In some embodiments, support is provided for the Open Graphics Library (OpenGL), Open Computing Language (OpenCL), and/or Vulkan graphics and compute API, all from the Khronos Group. In some embodiments, support may also be provided for the Direct3D library from the Microsoft Corporation. In some embodiments, a combination of these libraries may be supported. Support may also be provided for the Open Source Computer Vision Library (OpenCV). A future API with a compatible 3D pipeline would also be supported if a mapping can be made from the pipeline of the future API to the pipeline of the graphics processor.

Graphics Pipeline Programming

FIG. 9A is a block diagram illustrating a graphics processor command format 900 that may be used to program graphics processing pipelines according to some embodiments. FIG. 9B is a block diagram illustrating a graphics processor command sequence 910 according to an embodiment. The solid lined boxes in FIG. 9A illustrate the components that are generally included in a graphics command while the dashed lines include components that are optional or that are only included in a sub-set of the graphics commands. The exemplary graphics processor command format 900 of FIG. 9A includes data fields to identify a client 902, a command operation code (opcode) 904, and a data field 906 for the command. A sub-opcode 905 and a command size 908 are also included in some commands.

In some embodiments, client 902 specifies the client unit of the graphics device that processes the command data. In some embodiments, a graphics processor command parser examines the client field of each command to condition the further processing of the command and route the command data to the appropriate client unit. In some embodiments, the graphics processor client units include a memory interface unit, a render unit, a 2D unit, a 3D unit, and a media unit. Each client unit has a corresponding processing pipeline that processes the commands. Once the command is received by the client unit, the client unit reads the opcode 904 and, if present, sub-opcode 905 to determine the operation to perform. The client unit performs the command using information in data field 906. For some commands an explicit command size 908 is expected to specify the size of the command. In some embodiments, the command parser automatically determines the size of at least some of the commands based on the command opcode. In some embodiments commands are aligned via multiples of a double word. Other command formats can be used.

The flow diagram in FIG. 9B illustrates an exemplary graphics processor command sequence 910. In some embodiments, software or firmware of a data processing system that features an embodiment of a graphics processor uses a version of the command sequence shown to set up, execute, and terminate a set of graphics operations. A sample command sequence is shown and described for purposes of example only as embodiments are not limited to these specific commands or to this command sequence. Moreover, the commands may be issued as batch of commands in a command sequence, such that the graphics processor will process the sequence of commands in at least partially concurrence.

In some embodiments, the graphics processor command sequence 910 may begin with a pipeline flush command 912 to cause any active graphics pipeline to complete the currently pending commands for the pipeline. In some embodiments, the 3D pipeline 922 and the media pipeline 924 do not operate concurrently. The pipeline flush is performed to cause the active graphics pipeline to complete any pending commands. In response to a pipeline flush, the command parser for the graphics processor will pause command processing until the active drawing engines complete pending operations and the relevant read caches are invalidated. Optionally, any data in the render cache that is marked ‘dirty’ can be flushed to memory. In some embodiments, pipeline flush command 912 can be used for pipeline synchronization or before placing the graphics processor into a low power state.

In some embodiments, a pipeline select command 913 is used when a command sequence requires the graphics processor to explicitly switch between pipelines. In some embodiments, a pipeline select command 913 is required only once within an execution context before issuing pipeline commands unless the context is to issue commands for both pipelines. In some embodiments, a pipeline flush command 912 is required immediately before a pipeline switch via the pipeline select command 913.

In some embodiments, a pipeline control command 914 configures a graphics pipeline for operation and is used to program the 3D pipeline 922 and the media pipeline 924. In some embodiments, pipeline control command 914 configures the pipeline state for the active pipeline. In one embodiment, the pipeline control command 914 is used for pipeline synchronization and to clear data from one or more cache memories within the active pipeline before processing a batch of commands.

In some embodiments, commands related to the return buffer state 916 are used to configure a set of return buffers for the respective pipelines to write data. Some pipeline operations require the allocation, selection, or configuration of one or more return buffers into which the operations write intermediate data during processing. In some embodiments, the graphics processor also uses one or more return buffers to store output data and to perform cross thread communication. In some embodiments, the return buffer state 916 includes selecting the size and number of return buffers to use for a set of pipeline operations.

The remaining commands in the command sequence differ based on the active pipeline for operations. Based on a pipeline determination 920, the command sequence is tailored to the 3D pipeline 922 beginning with the 3D pipeline state 930 or the media pipeline 924 beginning at the media pipeline state 940.

The commands to configure the 3D pipeline state 930 include 3D state setting commands for vertex buffer state, vertex element state, constant color state, depth buffer state, and other state variables that are to be configured before 3D primitive commands are processed. The values of these commands are determined at least in part based on the particular 3D API in use. In some embodiments, 3D pipeline state 930 commands are also able to selectively disable or bypass certain pipeline elements if those elements will not be used.

In some embodiments, 3D primitive 932 command is used to submit 3D primitives to be processed by the 3D pipeline. Commands and associated parameters that are passed to the graphics processor via the 3D primitive 932 command are forwarded to the vertex fetch function in the graphics pipeline. The vertex fetch function uses the 3D primitive 932 command data to generate vertex data structures. The vertex data structures are stored in one or more return buffers. In some embodiments, 3D primitive 932 command is used to perform vertex operations on 3D primitives via vertex shaders. To process vertex shaders, 3D pipeline 922 dispatches shader execution threads to graphics processor execution units.

In some embodiments, 3D pipeline 922 is triggered via an execute 934 command or event. In some embodiments, a register write triggers command execution. In some embodiments execution is triggered via a ‘go’ or ‘kick’ command in the command sequence. In one embodiment, command execution is triggered using a pipeline synchronization command to flush the command sequence through the graphics pipeline. The 3D pipeline will perform geometry processing for the 3D primitives. Once operations are complete, the resulting geometric objects are rasterized and the pixel engine colors the resulting pixels. Additional commands to control pixel shading and pixel back end operations may also be included for those operations.

In some embodiments, the graphics processor command sequence 910 follows the media pipeline 924 path when performing media operations. In general, the specific use and manner of programming for the media pipeline 924 depends on the media or compute operations to be performed. Specific media decode operations may be offloaded to the media pipeline during media decode. In some embodiments, the media pipeline can also be bypassed and media decode can be performed in whole or in part using resources provided by one or more general-purpose processing cores. In one embodiment, the media pipeline also includes elements for general-purpose graphics processor unit (GPGPU) operations, where the graphics processor is used to perform SIMD vector operations using computational shader programs that are not explicitly related to the rendering of graphics primitives.

In some embodiments, media pipeline 924 is configured in a similar manner as the 3D pipeline 922. A set of commands to configure the media pipeline state 940 are dispatched or placed into a command queue before the media object commands 942. In some embodiments, commands for the media pipeline state 940 include data to configure the media pipeline elements that will be used to process the media objects. This includes data to configure the video decode and video encode logic within the media pipeline, such as encode or decode format. In some embodiments, commands for the media pipeline state 940 also support the use of one or more pointers to “indirect” state elements that contain a batch of state settings.

In some embodiments, media object commands 942 supply pointers to media objects for processing by the media pipeline. The media objects include memory buffers containing video data to be processed. In some embodiments, all media pipeline states must be valid before issuing a media object command 942. Once the pipeline state is configured and media object commands 942 are queued, the media pipeline 924 is triggered via an execute command 944 or an equivalent execute event (e.g., register write). Output from media pipeline 924 may then be post processed by operations provided by the 3D pipeline 922 or the media pipeline 924. In some embodiments, GPGPU operations are configured and executed in a similar manner as media operations.

Graphics Software Architecture

FIG. 10 illustrates an exemplary graphics software architecture for a data processing system 1000 according to some embodiments. In some embodiments, software architecture includes a 3D graphics application 1010, an operating system 1020, and at least one processor 1030. In some embodiments, processor 1030 includes a graphics processor 1032 and one or more general-purpose processor core(s) 1034. The graphics application 1010 and operating system 1020 each execute in the system memory 1050 of the data processing system.

In some embodiments, 3D graphics application 1010 contains one or more shader programs including shader instructions 1012. The shader language instructions may be in a high-level shader language, such as the High-Level Shader Language (HLSL) of Direct3D, the OpenGL Shader Language (GLSL), and so forth. The application also includes executable instructions 1014 in a machine language suitable for execution by the general-purpose processor core 1034. The application also includes graphics objects 1016 defined by vertex data.

In some embodiments, operating system 1020 is a Microsoft® Windows® operating system from the Microsoft Corporation, a proprietary UNIX-like operating system, or an open source UNIX-like operating system using a variant of the Linux kernel. The operating system 1020 can support a graphics API 1022 such as the Direct3D API, the OpenGL API, or the Vulkan API. When the Direct3D API is in use, the operating system 1020 uses a front-end shader compiler 1024 to compile any shader instructions 1012 in HLSL into a lower-level shader language. The compilation may be a just-in-time (JIT) compilation or the application can perform shader pre-compilation. In some embodiments, high-level shaders are compiled into low-level shaders during the compilation of the 3D graphics application 1010. In some embodiments, the shader instructions 1012 are provided in an intermediate form, such as a version of the Standard Portable Intermediate Representation (SPIR) used by the Vulkan API.

In some embodiments, user mode graphics driver 1026 contains a back-end shader compiler 1027 to convert the shader instructions 1012 into a hardware specific representation. When the OpenGL API is in use, shader instructions 1012 in the GLSL high-level language are passed to a user mode graphics driver 1026 for compilation. In some embodiments, user mode graphics driver 1026 uses operating system kernel mode functions 1028 to communicate with a kernel mode graphics driver 1029. In some embodiments, kernel mode graphics driver 1029 communicates with graphics processor 1032 to dispatch commands and instructions.

IP Core Implementations

One or more aspects of at least one embodiment may be implemented by representative code stored on a machine-readable medium which represents and/or defines logic within an integrated circuit such as a processor. For example, the machine-readable medium may include instructions which represent various logic within the processor. When read by a machine, the instructions may cause the machine to fabricate the logic to perform the techniques described herein. Such representations, known as “IP cores,” are reusable units of logic for an integrated circuit that may be stored on a tangible, machine-readable medium as a hardware model that describes the structure of the integrated circuit. The hardware model may be supplied to various customers or manufacturing facilities, which load the hardware model on fabrication machines that manufacture the integrated circuit. The integrated circuit may be fabricated such that the circuit performs operations described in association with any of the embodiments described herein.

FIG. 11A is a block diagram illustrating an IP core development system 1100 that may be used to manufacture an integrated circuit to perform operations according to an embodiment. The IP core development system 1100 may be used to generate modular, re-usable designs that can be incorporated into a larger design or used to construct an entire integrated circuit (e.g., an SOC integrated circuit). A design facility 1130 can generate a software simulation 1110 of an IP core design in a high-level programming language (e.g., C/C++). The software simulation 1110 can be used to design, test, and verify the behavior of the IP core using a simulation model 1112. The simulation model 1112 may include functional, behavioral, and/or timing simulations. A register transfer level (RTL) design 1115 can then be created or synthesized from the simulation model 1112. The RTL design 1115 is an abstraction of the behavior of the integrated circuit that models the flow of digital signals between hardware registers, including the associated logic performed using the modeled digital signals. In addition to an RTL design 1115, lower-level designs at the logic level or transistor level may also be created, designed, or synthesized. Thus, the particular details of the initial design and simulation may vary.

The RTL design 1115 or equivalent may be further synthesized by the design facility into a hardware model 1120, which may be in a hardware description language (HDL), or some other representation of physical design data. The HDL may be further simulated or tested to verify the IP core design. The IP core design can be stored for delivery to a 3^(rd) party fabrication facility 1165 using non-volatile memory 1140 (e.g., hard disk, flash memory, or any non-volatile storage medium). Alternatively, the IP core design may be transmitted (e.g., via the Internet) over a wired connection 1150 or wireless connection 1160. The fabrication facility 1165 may then fabricate an integrated circuit that is based at least in part on the IP core design. The fabricated integrated circuit can be configured to perform operations in accordance with at least one embodiment described herein.

FIG. 11B illustrates a cross-section side view of an integrated circuit package assembly 1170, according to some embodiments described herein. The integrated circuit package assembly 1170 illustrates an implementation of one or more processor or accelerator devices as described herein. The package assembly 1170 includes multiple units of hardware logic 1172, 1174 connected to a substrate 1180. The logic 1172, 1174 may be implemented at least partly in configurable logic or fixed—functionality logic hardware, and can include one or more portions of any of the processor core(s), graphics processor(s), or other accelerator devices described herein. Each unit of logic 1172, 1174 can be implemented within a semiconductor die and coupled with the substrate 1180 via an interconnect structure 1173. The interconnect structure 1173 may be configured to route electrical signals between the logic 1172, 1174 and the substrate 1180, and can include interconnects such as, but not limited to bumps or pillars. In some embodiments, the interconnect structure 1173 may be configured to route electrical signals such as, for example, input/output (I/O) signals and/or power or ground signals associated with the operation of the logic 1172, 1174. In some embodiments, the substrate 1180 is an epoxy-based laminate substrate. The substrate 1180 may include other suitable types of substrates in other embodiments. The package assembly 1170 can be connected to other electrical devices via a package interconnect 1183. The package interconnect 1183 may be coupled to a surface of the substrate 1180 to route electrical signals to other electrical devices, such as a motherboard, other chipset, or multi-chip module.

In some embodiments, the units of logic 1172, 1174 are electrically coupled with a bridge 1182 that is configured to route electrical signals between the logic 1172, 1174. The bridge 1182 may be a dense interconnect structure that provides a route for electrical signals. The bridge 1182 may include a bridge substrate composed of glass or a suitable semiconductor material. Electrical routing features can be formed on the bridge substrate to provide a chip-to-chip connection between the logic 1172, 1174.

Although two units of logic 1172, 1174 and a bridge 1182 are illustrated, embodiments described herein may include more or fewer logic units on one or more dies. The one or more dies may be connected by zero or more bridges, as the bridge 1182 may be excluded when the logic is included on a single die. Alternatively, multiple dies or units of logic can be connected by one or more bridges. Additionally, multiple logic units, dies, and bridges can be connected together in other possible configurations, including three-dimensional configurations.

FIG. 11C illustrates a package assembly 1190 that includes multiple units of hardware logic chiplets connected to a substrate 1180. A graphics processing unit, parallel processor, and/or compute accelerator as described herein can be composed from diverse silicon chiplets that are separately manufactured. In this context, a chiplet is an at least partially packaged integrated circuit that includes distinct units of logic that can be assembled with other chiplets into a larger package. A diverse set of chiplets with different IP core logic can be assembled into a single device. Additionally the chiplets can be integrated into a base die or base chiplet using active interposer technology. The concepts described herein enable the interconnection and communication between the different forms of IP within the GPU. IP cores can be manufactured using different process technologies and composed during manufacturing, which avoids the complexity of converging multiple IPs, especially on a large SoC with several flavors IPs, to the same manufacturing process. Enabling the use of multiple process technologies improves the time to market and provides a cost-effective way to create multiple product SKUs. Additionally, the disaggregated IPs are more amenable to being power gated independently, components that are not in use on a given workload can be powered off, reducing overall power consumption.

In various embodiments a package assembly 1190 can include components and chiplets that are interconnected by a fabric 1185 and/or one or more bridges 1187. The chiplets within the package assembly 1190 may have a 2.5D arrangement using Chip-on-Wafer-on-Substrate stacking in which multiple dies are stacked side-by-side on a silicon interposer 1189 that couples the chiplets with the substrate 1180. The substrate 1180 includes electrical connections to the package interconnect 1183. In one embodiment the silicon interposer 1189 is a passive interposer that includes through-silicon vias (TSVs) to electrically couple chiplets within the package assembly 1190 to the substrate 1180. In one embodiment, silicon interposer 1189 is an active interposer that includes embedded logic in addition to TSVs. In such embodiment, the chiplets within the package assembly 1190 are arranged using 3D face to face die stacking on top of the active interposer 1189. The active interposer 1189 can include hardware logic for I/O 1191, cache memory 1192, and other hardware logic 1193, in addition to interconnect fabric 1185 and a silicon bridge 1187. The fabric 1185 enables communication between the various logic chiplets 1172, 1174 and the logic 1191, 1193 within the active interposer 1189. The fabric 1185 may be an NoC interconnect or another form of packet switched fabric that switches data packets between components of the package assembly. For complex assemblies, the fabric 1185 may be a dedicated chiplet enables communication between the various hardware logic of the package assembly 1190.

Bridge structures 1187 within the active interposer 1189 may be used to facilitate a point to point interconnect between, for example, logic or I/O chiplets 1174 and memory chiplets 1175. In some implementations, bridge structures 1187 may also be embedded within the substrate 1180. The hardware logic chiplets can include special purpose hardware logic chiplets 1172, logic or I/O chiplets 1174, and/or memory chiplets 1175. The hardware logic chiplets 1172 and logic or I/O chiplets 1174 may be implemented at least partly in configurable logic or fixed-functionality logic hardware and can include one or more portions of any of the processor core(s), graphics processor(s), parallel processors, or other accelerator devices described herein. The memory chiplets 1175 can be DRAM (e.g., GDDR, HEM) memory or cache (SRAM) memory. Cache memory 1192 within the active interposer 1189 (or substrate 1180) can act as a global cache for the package assembly 1190, part of a distributed global cache, or as a dedicated cache for the fabric 1185.

Each chiplet can be fabricated as separate semiconductor die and coupled with a base die that is embedded within or coupled with the substrate 1180. The coupling with the substrate 1180 can be performed via an interconnect structure 1173. The interconnect structure 1173 may be configured to route electrical signals between the various chiplets and logic within the substrate 1180. The interconnect structure 1173 can include interconnects such as, but not limited to bumps or pillars. In some embodiments, the interconnect structure 1173 may be configured to route electrical signals such as, for example, input/output (I/O) signals and/or power or ground signals associated with the operation of the logic, I/O and memory chiplets. In one embodiment, an additional interconnect structure couples the active interposer 1189 with the substrate 1180.

In some embodiments, the substrate 1180 is an epoxy-based laminate substrate. The substrate 1180 may include other suitable types of substrates in other embodiments. The package assembly 1190 can be connected to other electrical devices via a package interconnect 1183. The package interconnect 1183 may be coupled to a surface of the substrate 1180 to route electrical signals to other electrical devices, such as a motherboard, other chipset, or multi-chip module.

In some embodiments, a logic or I/O chiplet 1174 and a memory chiplet 1175 can be electrically coupled via a bridge 1187 that is configured to route electrical signals between the logic or I/O chiplet 1174 and a memory chiplet 1175. The bridge 1187 may be a dense interconnect structure that provides a route for electrical signals. The bridge 1187 may include a bridge substrate composed of glass or a suitable semiconductor material. Electrical routing features can be formed on the bridge substrate to provide a chip-to-chip connection between the logic or I/O chiplet 1174 and a memory chiplet 1175. The bridge 1187 may also be referred to as a silicon bridge or an interconnect bridge. For example, the bridge 1187, in some embodiments, is an Embedded Multi-die Interconnect Bridge (EMIB). In some embodiments, the bridge 1187 may simply be a direct connection from one chiplet to another chiplet.

FIG. 11D illustrates a package assembly 1194 including interchangeable chiplets 1195, according to an embodiment. The interchangeable chiplets 1195 can be assembled into standardized slots on one or more base chiplets 1196, 1198. The base chiplets 1196, 1198 can be coupled via a bridge interconnect 1197, which can be similar to the other bridge interconnects described herein and may be, for example, an EMIB. Memory chiplets can also be connected to logic or I/O chiplets via a bridge interconnect. I/O and logic chiplets can communicate via an interconnect fabric. The base chiplets can each support one or more slots in a standardized format for one of logic or I/O or memory/cache.

In one embodiment, SRAM and power delivery circuits can be fabricated into one or more of the base chiplets 1196, 1198, which can be fabricated using a different process technology relative to the interchangeable chiplets 1195 that are stacked on top of the base chiplets. For example, the base chiplets 1196, 1198 can be fabricated using a larger process technology, while the interchangeable chiplets can be manufactured using a smaller process technology. One or more of the interchangeable chiplets 1195 may be memory (e.g., DRAM) chiplets. Different memory densities can be selected for the package assembly 1194 based on the power, and/or performance targeted for the product that uses the package assembly 1194. Additionally, logic chiplets with a different number of type of functional units can be selected at time of assembly based on the power, and/or performance targeted for the product. Additionally, chiplets containing IP logic cores of differing types can be inserted into the interchangeable chiplet slots, enabling hybrid processor designs that can mix and match different technology IP blocks.

Exemplary System on a Chip Integrated Circuit

FIGS. 12-13B illustrate exemplary integrated circuits and associated graphics processors that may be fabricated using one or more IP cores, according to various embodiments described herein. In addition to what is illustrated, other logic and circuits may be included, including additional graphics processors/cores, peripheral interface controllers, or general-purpose processor cores.

FIG. 12 is a block diagram illustrating an exemplary system on a chip integrated circuit 1200 that may be fabricated using one or more IP cores, according to an embodiment. Exemplary integrated circuit 1200 includes one or more application processor(s) 1205 (e.g., CPUs), at least one graphics processor 1210, and may additionally include an image processor 1215 and/or a video processor 1220, any of which may be a modular IP core from the same or multiple different design facilities. Integrated circuit 1200 includes peripheral or bus logic including a USB controller 1225, UART controller 1230, an SPI/SDIO controller 1235, and an I²S/I²C controller 1240. Additionally, the integrated circuit can include a display device 1245 coupled to one or more of a high-definition multimedia interface (HDMI) controller 1250 and a mobile industry processor interface (MIPI) display interface 1255. Storage may be provided by a flash memory subsystem 1260 including flash memory and a flash memory controller. Memory interface may be provided via a memory controller 1265 for access to SDRAM or SRAM memory devices. Some integrated circuits additionally include an embedded security engine 1270.

FIGS. 13A-13B are block diagrams illustrating exemplary graphics processors for use within an SoC, according to embodiments described herein. FIG. 13A illustrates an exemplary graphics processor 1310 of a system on a chip integrated circuit that may be fabricated using one or more IP cores, according to an embodiment. FIG. 13B illustrates an additional exemplary graphics processor 1340 of a system on a chip integrated circuit that may be fabricated using one or more IP cores, according to an embodiment. Graphics processor 1310 of FIG. 13A is an example of a low power graphics processor core. Graphics processor 1340 of FIG. 13B is an example of a higher performance graphics processor core. Each of graphics processor 1310 and graphics processor 1340 can be variants of the graphics processor 1210 of FIG. 12 .

As shown in FIG. 13A, graphics processor 1310 includes a vertex processor 1305 and one or more fragment processor(s) 1315A-1315N (e.g., 1315A, 1315B, 1315C, 1315D, through 1315N-1, and 1315N). Graphics processor 1310 can execute different shader programs via separate logic, such that the vertex processor 1305 is optimized to execute operations for vertex shader programs, while the one or more fragment processor(s) 1315A-1315N execute fragment (e.g., pixel) shading operations for fragment or pixel shader programs. The vertex processor 1305 performs the vertex processing stage of the 3D graphics pipeline and generates primitives and vertex data. The fragment processor(s) 1315A-1315N use the primitive and vertex data generated by the vertex processor 1305 to produce a framebuffer that is displayed on a display device. In one embodiment, the fragment processor(s) 1315A-1315N are optimized to execute fragment shader programs as provided for in the OpenGL API, which may be used to perform similar operations as a pixel shader program as provided for in the Direct 3D API.

Graphics processor 1310 additionally includes one or more memory management units (MMUs) 1320A-1320B, cache(s) 1325A-1325B, and circuit interconnect(s) 1330A-1330B. The one or more MMU(s) 1320A-1320B provide for virtual to physical address mapping for the graphics processor 1310, including for the vertex processor 1305 and/or fragment processor(s) 1315A-1315N, which may reference vertex or image/texture data stored in memory, in addition to vertex or image/texture data stored in the one or more cache(s) 1325A-1325B. In one embodiment the one or more MMU(s) 1320A-1320B may be synchronized with other MMUs within the system, including one or more MMUs associated with the one or more application processor(s) 1205, image processor 1215, and/or video processor 1220 of FIG. 12 , such that each processor 1205-1220 can participate in a shared or unified virtual memory system. The one or more circuit interconnect(s) 1330A-1330B enable graphics processor 1310 to interface with other IP cores within the SoC, either via an internal bus of the SoC or via a direct connection, according to embodiments.

As shown FIG. 13B, graphics processor 1340 includes the one or more MMU(s) 1320A-1320B, cache(s) 1325A-1325B, and circuit interconnect(s) 1330A-1330B of the graphics processor 1310 of FIG. 13A. Graphics processor 1340 includes one or more shader core(s) 1355A-1355N (e.g., 1455A, 1355B, 1355C, 1355D, 1355E, 1355F, through 1355N-1, and 1355N), which provides for a unified shader core architecture in which a single core or type or core can execute all types of programmable shader code, including shader program code to implement vertex shaders, fragment shaders, and/or compute shaders. The unified shader core architecture is also configurable to execute direct compiled high-level GPGPU programs (e.g., CUDA). The exact number of shader cores present can vary among embodiments and implementations. Additionally, graphics processor 1340 includes an inter-core task manager 1345, which acts as a thread dispatcher to dispatch execution threads to one or more shader cores 1355A-1355N and a tiling unit 1358 to accelerate tiling operations for tile-based rendering, in which rendering operations for a scene are subdivided in image space, for example to exploit local spatial coherence within a scene or to optimize use of internal caches.

Native Support for Execution of Get Exponent, Get Mantissa, and Scale Instructions

As various functionality (e.g., extraction of respective exponent portions and respective mantissa portions from source operands, shifting, rounding, leading zero detection, and addition) performed by hardware logic of existing fused multiply-add (FMA) execution units implemented within a shader execution unit of a GPU have applicability to results or intermediate results of get exponent, get mantissa, and scale instructions, in embodiments, such existing hardware logic may be reused and supplemented (e.g., with normalization logic, integer to float conversion logic, float to integer conversion logic, and multiplexers) to allow a modified FMA execution unit to be configured to execute one or more of these new instructions or the FMA instruction based on the opcodes of the instructions at issue.

For example, additional hardware logic may be added to existing FMA hardware logic to facilitate native execution of single and double precision get exponent instructions (e.g., SP_GETEXP and DP_GETEXP) operable to to extract the exponent of an input floating point number. The input floating point number may be encoded/represented in an IEEE 754 format. For example, a first portion of the bits (e.g., 1 bit) encoding the input floating point number may represent a sign of the input floating point number, a second portion of the bits (e.g., 8 or 11 bits, depending upon the precision) may represent an exponent of the input floating point number, and a third portion of the bits (e.g., 23 or 52 bits, depending upon the precision) may represent a mantissa of the input floating point number. The get exponent instruction may be represented in the form of an instruction having a single source operand and a single destination operand in which the result of executing the get exponent instruction sets the destination operand to the exponent portion of the source operand.

According to one embodiment, a get exponent instruction is received at an FPU of a shader execution unit of a GPU. The get exponent instruction may specify a source operand and a destination operand represented in floating-point format. The get exponent instruction may be executed on an FMA execution unit (e.g., as described below with reference to FIG. 15 ) of the FPU. As described in further detail below, in some examples, special case source operand values (e.g., Not a Number (NaN), positive/negative infinity (+/−INF), and zero) may bypass the main data flow of the FMA execution unit. For example, multiple special cases may be detected in a pre-processing stage of the FMA execution unit and special output may be generated corresponding to the special case at issue. When no special cases are involved, an integer value of an unbiased representation of a biased exponent of the source operand may be obtained. The unbiased representation may then be converted to a floating point number and the destination operand may be set to the floating point number. A non-limiting example of native execution of a get exponent instruction by an FMA execution unit is described further below with reference to FIG. 16 .

Additionally or alternatively to support for get exponent and/or scale instructions, additional hardware logic may be added to existing FMA hardware logic to facilitate native execution of single and double precision get mantissa instructions (e.g., SP_GETMANT and DP_GETMANT) operable to output the mantissa part of an input floating point number (e.g., represented in an IEEE 754 format). The get mantissa instruction may be represented in the form of an instruction having two source operands and a destination operand in which the result of executing the get mantissa instruction sets the destination operand to the mantissa portion of the first source operand. In some embodiments, control information may be encoded within the second source operand to aid in determining a normalization interval to be used and a sign of the destination operand.

According to one embodiment, a get mantissa instruction is received at an FPU of a shader execution unit of a GPU. The get exponent instruction may specify a first source operand and a destination operand represented in floating-point format. The get exponent instruction may also include multiple control bits, for example, contained within a second source operand of the get exponent instruction. The get mantissa instruction may be executed on an FMA execution unit (e.g., as described below with reference to FIG. 17 ) of the FPU. As described in further detail below, in some examples, special cases of the first source operand value (e.g., NaN+/−INF, and +/−zero) may bypass the main data flow of the FMA execution unit. For example, multiple special cases may be detected in a pre-processing stage of the FMA execution unit and special output may be generated corresponding to the special case at issue. When no special cases are involved, a mantissa portion of the destination operand may be set to a mantissa portion of the first source operand. An exponent portion of the destination operand may be selectively set to a bias value or the bias value minus 1 based on the normalization interval encoded within the control information and an unbiased exponent value of the first source operand. A sign portion of the destination operand may be selectively set based on a sign control encoded within the control information. A non-limiting example of native execution of a get mantissa instruction by an FMA execution unit is described further below with reference to FIG. 18 .

Additionally or alternatively to support for get exponent and/or get mantissa instructions, additional hardware logic may be added to existing FMA hardware logic to facilitate native execution of single and double precision scale instructions (e.g., SP_SCALEF and DP_SCALEF) operable to output a scaled input floating point value (e.g., represented in an IEEE 754 format) by a power of two. The scale instruction may be represented in the form of an instruction having two source operands and a destination operand in which the result of executing the scale instruction sets the destination operand to a floating point value representing the first source operand multiplied by two to the power of the second source operand.

According to one embodiment, a scale instruction is received at an FPU of a shader execution unit of a GPU. The scale instruction may specify a first and second source operand and a destination operand represented in floating-point format. The scale instruction may be executed on an FMA execution unit (e.g., as described below with reference to FIG. 19 ) of the FPU. As described in further detail below, in some examples, special cases combinations of the first source operand value and the second operand value (e.g., in which one or both are NaN, +/−INF, denormal, normal, and/or +/−zero) may bypass the main data flow of the FMA execution unit. For example, multiple special cases may be detected in a pre-processing stage of the FMA execution unit and special output may be generated corresponding to the special case at issue. When no special cases are involved, a temporary mantissa may be generated by extracting a mantissa portion from the first source operand. A temporary integer value may be generated by converting the second source operand to integer format. A temporary exponent may be generated by adding an exponent portion of the first source operand to the temporary integer value. Finally, the destination operand may be set by applying overflow/underflow logic and rounding logic of the FMA execution unit to the temporary mantissa and the temporary exponent. A non-limiting example of native execution of a scale instruction by an FMA execution unit is described further below with reference to FIG. 20 .

FIG. 14 is a block diagram of a shader execution unit 1400, according to an embodiment. In the context of the present example, the shader execution unit 1400 (e.g., one of shader processors 227A-F of FIG. 2B or shader processor 502 of FIG. 5A) includes an instruction buffer 1410, a decoder 1420, an arbiter 1430, and various pipelines, including an FPU pipeline 1440 (e.g., FPUs 534 of FIG. 5B). GPU shader instructions (e.g., natively supported machine-level instructions) may be fetched from an instruction cache and stored in the instruction buffer 1410. Non-limiting examples of the GPU shader instructions include single and/or double precision floating point instructions operable to support improved performance of software emulation of transcendental functions (e.g., logarithm operations and exponential operations) and/or math functions (e.g., quotient and product approximations), for example, in terms of reduced machine-level instructions, execution time, and/or accuracy.

According to one embodiment, after decoding of instructions, the arbiter 1430 dispatches those representing FPU instructions to the FPU pipeline 1440 where one or more of get exponent, get mantissa, and scale instructions can be natively executed as described further below. The FPU pipeline 1440 may include multiple processing lanes (e.g., 16 lanes) that may each concurrently execute an FPU instruction for multiple hardware and/or software threads, thereby allowing the shader execution unit 1400 to produce multiple (e.g., 16 outputs) for the same instruction. In one embodiment, each lane of the FPU pipeline 1440 includes the same hardware logic. Various non-limiting examples of a fused multiply-add (FMA) execution unit of a lane of the FPU pipeline 1440 are described below with reference to FIGS. 15, 17, and 19 .

Get Exponent Instruction

FIG. 15 is a block diagram of a fused multiply-added (FMA) execution unit 1500 with modifications to support execution of get exponent instructions, according to an embodiment. According to one embodiment, a get exponent instruction (e.g., SP_GETEXP or DP_GETEXP) extracts the exponent of an input floating point number within a source operand (e.g., Src0) of the instruction and outputs the exponent as a floating point number to a destination operand (e.g., Dst) of the instruction. The functionality of the get exponent instruction may be represented as GETEXP(Src0)=floor(log 2(|Src0|)) for all inputs, where Src0 is the input floating point number. In one embodiment, in order to facilitate development of branch-free software emulation algorithms for one or more transcendental and/or math functions, special case inputs to such functions traditionally handled with special paths (e.g., branches) within the software emulation algorithms may instead be handled by the FMA execution unit outputting appropriate results for the corresponding special cases in accordance with Table 1 (below).

TABLE 1 Get Exponent Results for Special Cases of Input Operand Values Input Operand (e.g., Src0) Result (e.g., Dst) Src0 = NaN QNaN(Src0) |Src0| = +INF +INF |Src0| = 0 −INF

In the context of the present example, hardware logic of an existing FMA execution unit is depicted with unfilled blocks and hardware logic added to the FMA execution unit 1500 or reused from elsewhere within the FPU pipeline in support a get exponent instruction is depicted as gray-filled blocks. Current implementations of FMA execution units are capable of receiving three source operands (e.g., A, B, and C) in floating point format and concurrently executing a multiply and add (e.g., MAD) instruction to output a floating point result (e.g., A*B+C) representing the sum of the product of a first source operand (e.g., A) and a second source operand (e.g., B) and a third source operand (e.g., C). In support of the multiply and add instruction, existing FMA execution units include hardware logic (e.g., pre-processing logic 1510) to extract respective exponent portions and respective mantissa portions of the three source operands (e.g., A.Exp, B.Exp, C.Exp, A.Mant, B.Mant, and C.Mant).

In the present example, hardware logic of an existing FMA execution unit may be reused and supplemented (e.g., with normalization logic 1520, integer to float conversion logic 1540, and multiplexers 1530 a-c) to allow the FMA execution unit 1500 to operate on a single source operand (e.g., A) to output an exponent portion of a destination operand via Out.Exp and a mantissa portion of the destination operand via Out.Mant as a result of the main data flow illustrated by the thicker lines.

In one embodiment, in addition to performing mantissa extraction and exponent extraction, pre-processing logic 1510 also performs detection and handling of the special case inputs illustrated in Table 1 (above). For example, when the source operand is determined to be one of the multiple special cases, the pre-processing logic 1510 may bypass the main data flow of the FMA execution unit 1500 and set the destination operand to the result corresponding to the special case at issue. Meanwhile, non-special case inputs (i.e., when 0<|Src0|<INF) are processed via the main data flow.

In the context of the present example, normalization logic 1520 is operable to perform normalization when the source operand is denormal. For example, the normalization logic 1520 may receive both the exponent portion and the mantissa portion of the source operand and output the floating point number in normalized form, then the biased exponent may be exacted and the bias value may be subtracted from the biased exponent to produce the unbiased exponent (e.g., A.Unbiased). In one embodiment, the exponent is represented internally in two's complement integer format, which can be converted to a floating point number by the integer to float conversion logic 1540.

FIG. 16 is a flow diagram illustrating processing of a get exponent instruction, according to an embodiment. At block 1610, a get exponent instruction is received at a floating point unit of a shader execution unit (e.g., shader execution unit 1400). According to one embodiment, as a result of software emulation of a logarithm or division operation by a corresponding library function, the get exponent instruction may be received by an FMA execution unit (e.g., FMA execution unit 1500). A non-limiting example, of a branch-free emulation algorithm for a logarithm operation is depicted in FIG. 22 .

At decision block 1620, it is determined whether the source operand of the get exponent instruction represents one of multiple special cases. If so, execution of the get exponent instruction proceeds with block 1630; otherwise, execution of the get exponent instruction proceeds with block 1640. In one embodiment, detection of the special cases (e.g., those listed in Table 1) are performed within a pre-processing stage (e.g., pre-processing logic 1510) of the FMA execution unit.

At block 1630, the destination operand specified by the get exponent instruction is set to a value corresponding to the special case at issue. According to one embodiment, responsive to detecting the source operand is one of the special cases, the pre-processing stage also handles the special case. For example, for those input operand values listed in Table 1, the pre-processing stage of the FMA execution unit may bypass the main data flow of the FMA execution unit and cause the destination operand to be set to the corresponding result in Table 1. In this manner, special case processing (e.g., branches) relating to such special inputs need not be performed by the library function, thereby reducing the number of instructions and increasing the performance of the library function.

At block 1640, an integer value of an unbiased representation of a biased exponent of the source operand is obtained. For example, in the context of FIG. 15 , A.Unbiased may be obtained as a result of the normalization logic 1520 outputting the source operand in normalized form, after which the biased exponent may be exacted and the bias value may be subtracted from the biased exponent to produce the unbiased exponent (e.g., A.Unbiased). In one embodiment, the exponent is represented internally in two's complement integer format.

At block 1650, the unbiased representation is converted to a floating point number. For example, integer to float conversion logic (e.g., integer to float conversion logic 1540) may convert the unbiased representation from a two's complement integer format to a floating point representation.

At block 1660, the destination operand is set to the floating point number (e.g., output by the integer to float conversion logic).

While in the context of the present example and in the context of subsequent flow diagrams, a number of enumerated blocks are included, it is to be understood that embodiments may include additional blocks before, after, and/or in between the enumerated blocks. Similarly, in some embodiments, one or more of the enumerated blocks may be omitted or performed in a different order.

Get Mantissa Instruction

FIG. 17 is a block diagram of an FMA execution unit 1700 with modifications to support execution of get mantissa instructions, according to an embodiment. According to one embodiment, a get mantissa instruction (e.g., SP_GETMANT or SP_GETMANT) outputs the mantissa part of an input floating point number within a source operand to the destination operand in floating point format. The get mantissa operation may be a two-source operation, in which the first source operand (e.g., Src0) is the input floating point number for which the mantissa should be extracted and the second source operand (e.g., Src1) has control bits to determine the normalization interval and sign. In one embodiment, two bits of control information (e.g., contained within Src1) may be used to encode the sign control (e.g., SignCtrl[1:0]) and two bits of the control information may be used to encode the normalization interval (e.g., Interval[1:0]). The functionality of the get mantissa instruction may be represented as GETMANT(Src0, Interval, SignCtrl)=+/−2^(K)|x.significand|, where x.significand is the mantissa of Src0 with a leading 1 and 1.0<=|x.significand|<2.0. Biased exponent K depends on the interval range defined by the normalization interval control bits and whether the exponent of Src0 is even or odd. The sign of the result is determined by SignCtrl and the sign of Src0. A signal bit may represent the most significant bit of the significand (e.g., the first fractional bit following the leading 1). As such, when the signal bit is 0, 1.0<=|x.significand|<1.5; and when the signal bit is 1, 1.5<=|x.significand|<2.0.

According to one embodiment, biased exponent K may be determined in accordance with Table 2 (below).

TABLE 2 Biased Exponent K and Output Range based on the Normalization Interval and Condition Normalization Output Interval Condition K Range 00 None Bias [1.0, 2.0) 01 Src0 unbiased Bias [1.0, 2.0) and exponent is even 01 Src0 unbiased Bias − 1 [0.5, 1.0) and exponent is odd 10 None Bias − 1 [0.5, 1.0) 11 signal bit = 0 Bias [1.0, 1.5) 11 signal bit = 1 Bias − 1 [0.75, 1.0) 

According to one embodiment, the sign of the result (the output sign) may be determined in accordance with Table 3 (below).

TABLE 3 Output Sign based on SignCtrl SignCtrl[1:0] Output Sign 00 Sign(Src0) 01 0 1X If (sign(Src0) == 0x1) force out = QNaN Else sign(Src0)

According to one embodiment, the special inputs are handled in accordance with Table 4 (below).

TABLE 4 Results for Special Case Inputs Input Src0 Result NaN QNan (Src0) +INF 1.0 +0 1.0 −0 If (SignCtrl[0]) +1.0 Else −1.0 −INF If (SignCtrl [1]) {QNaN_Indefinite} Else { If (SignCtrl[0]) +1.0 else −1.0

In the context of the present example, hardware logic of an existing FMA execution unit is depicted with unfilled blocks and hardware logic added to the FMA execution unit 1500 or reused from elsewhere within the FPU pipeline in support a get mantissa instruction is depicted as gray-filled blocks.

In the present example, hardware logic of an existing FMA execution unit may be reused and supplemented (e.g., with normalization logic 1720 and multiplexers 1730 a-b) to allow the FMA execution unit 1700 to operate on a single source operand (e.g., A) to output a mantissa portion of a destination operand via Out.Mant as a result of the main data flow illustrated by the thicker lines.

In one embodiment, in addition to performing mantissa extraction, pre-processing logic 1710 also performs detection and handling of the special case inputs illustrated in Table 4 (above). For example, when the source operand is determined to be one of the multiple special cases, the pre-processing logic 1710 may bypass the main data flow of the FMA execution unit 1700 and set the destination operand to the result corresponding to the special case at issue. Meanwhile, non-special case inputs (i.e., when 0<|Src0|<INF) are processed via the main data flow.

In the context of the present example, normalization logic 1720 is operable to perform normalization when the source operand is denormal to format the mantissa in the form 1.XXXXX. For example, the normalization logic 1720 may receive both the exponent portion and the mantissa portion of the source operand and output the floating point number in normalized form, then the mantissa output from the normalization logic 1720 or the mantissa of the source operand may be selectively bypassed to Out.Mant.

Based on the instruction definition, the pre-processing logic 1710 may set Out.Exp to either the bias value or the bias value−1, depending on the control information (e.g., the normalization interval) and the unbiased exponent value of the source operand, for example, as shown in Table 2. Additionally, the pre-processing logic 1710 may selectively set the bit representing the sign of the destination operand (e.g., Out.Sign) based on the control information (e.g., the value of SignCtrl), for example, as shown in Table 3.

FIG. 18 is a flow diagram illustrating processing of a get mantissa instruction, according to an embodiment. At block 1810, a get mantissa instruction is received at a floating point unit of a shader execution unit (e.g., shader execution unit 1400). According to one embodiment, as a result of software emulation of a logarithm or division operation by a corresponding library function, the get mantissa instruction may be received by an FMA execution unit (e.g., FMA execution unit 1700). A non-limiting example, of a branch-free emulation algorithm for a logarithm operation is depicted in FIG. 22 .

At decision block 1820, it is determined whether the source operand of the get mantissa instruction represents one of multiple special cases. If so, execution of the get mantissa instruction proceeds with block 1830; otherwise, execution of the get mantissa instruction proceeds with block 1840. In one embodiment, detection of the special cases (e.g., those listed in Table 4) are performed within a pre-processing stage (e.g., pre-processing logic 1710) of the FMA execution unit.

At block 1830, the destination operand specified by the get mantissa instruction is set to a value corresponding to the special case at issue. According to one embodiment, responsive to detecting the source operand is one of the special cases, the pre-processing stage also handles the special case. For example, for those input operand values listed in Table 4, the pre-processing stage of the FMA execution unit may bypass the main data flow of the FMA execution unit and cause the destination operand to be set to the corresponding result in Table 4. In this manner, special case processing (e.g., branches) relating to such special inputs need not be performed by the library function, thereby reducing the number of instructions and increasing the performance of the library function.

At block 1840, a mantissa portion of the destination operand is set to a mantissa portion of the first source operand in normalized form. In one embodiment, the exponent portion and the mantissa portion of the first source operand are input to normalization logic (e.g., normalization logic 1720) and when the first source operand is denormal, the normalization logic format the mantissa in the form 1.XXXXX. When the first source operand is already within the normalized range, the mantissa portion of the first source operand may be bypassed, for example, by the pre-processing stage to the mantissa portion of the destination operand.

At block 1850, the exponent portion of the destination operand is selectively set to a bias value or the bias value minus one based on a normalization interval encoded within control information associated with the get mantissa instruction. In one embodiment, the exponent portion of the destination operand is set by the pre-processing stage in accordance with Table 2 (above) and bypass the main data flow of the FMA execution unit. Depending upon the particular implementation, the control information may be included within a second source operand of the get mantissa instruction and may include two bits representing the normalization interval (e.g., Interval[1:0]) and two bits representing the sign control (e.g., SignCtrl[1:0]).

At block 1860, a sign portion of the destination operand is selectively set based on a sign control encoded within the control information. In one embodiment, the sign bit of the destination operand is set by the pre-processing stage in accordance with Table 3 (above) and bypasses the main data flow of the FMA execution unit.

Scale Instruction

FIG. 19 is a block diagram of an FMA execution unit with modifications to support execution of scale instructions, according to an embodiment. According to one embodiment, a scale instruction (e.g., SP_SCALEF or DP_SCALEF) outputs a scaled input floating point value by a power of two. The scale instruction may be represented in the form of an instruction having two source operands and a destination operand in which the result of executing the scale instruction sets the destination operand to a floating point value representing the first source operand (e.g., Src0) multiplied by two to the power of the second source operand (e.g., Src1). The functionality of the scale instruction may be represented as SCALEF(Scr0, Src1) =Src0*2{circumflex over ( )}floor(Src1) for all combinations of Src0 when denormal or normal and Src1 when zero, denormal, or normal. In one embodiment, in order to facilitate development of branch-free software emulation algorithms for one or more transcendental and/or math functions, special case inputs combinations to such functions traditionally handled with special paths (e.g., branches) within the software emulation algorithms may instead be handled by the FMA execution unit outputting appropriate results for the corresponding special cases in accordance with Table 5 (below). The input combinations representing special cases are show as follows.

TABLE 5 Scale Instruction Results for Special Case Input Operand Value Combinations First Input Second Input Result Operand (e.g., Src0) Operand (e.g., Src1) (e.g., Dst) +/−QNaN +/−NaN QNaN(Src0) +/−QNaN +INF +INF +/−QNaN −INF 0 +/−QNaN 0/Denorm/Norm QNaN(Src0) +/−SNaN +/−NaN QNaN(Src0) +/−SNaN +INF QNaN(Src0) +/−SNaN −INF QNaN(Src0) +/−SNaN 0/Denorm/Norm QNaN(Src0) +/−INF +/−NaN QNaN(Src1) +/−INF +INF Src0 +/−INF −INF QNaN_Indefinite +/−INF 0/Denorm/Norm Src0 +/−0 +/−NaN QNaN(Src1) +/−0 +INF QNaN_Indefinite +/−0 −INF Src0 +/−0 0/Denorm/Norm Src0 Denorm/Norm +/−NaN QNaN(Src1) Denorm/Norm +INF +/−INF (Src0 sign) Denorm/Norm −INF +/−0 (Src0 sign)

In the context of the present example, hardware logic of an existing FMA execution unit is depicted with unfilled blocks and hardware logic added to the FMA execution unit 1900 or reused from elsewhere within the FPU pipeline in support a scale instruction is depicted as gray-filled blocks.

In the present example, hardware logic of an existing FMA execution unit may be reused and supplemented (e.g., with float to integer conversion logic 1920 and multiplexers 1930 a-b) to allow the FMA execution unit 1900 to operate on two source operands (e.g., A and B) to output the resulting destination operand via Out.Exp and Out.Mant as a result of the main data flow illustrated by the thicker lines.

In one embodiment, in addition to performing exponent and mantissa extraction, pre-processing logic 1910 also performs detection and handling of the combinations of special case inputs illustrated in Table 5 (above). For example, when the combination of the first source operand and the second source operand is determined to be one of the multiple special cases, the pre-processing logic 1910 may bypass the main data flow of the FMA execution unit 1900 and set the output (e.g., Out.Exp and Out.Mant) to the result corresponding to the special case at issue. Meanwhile, non-special case inputs (i.e., when Src0 is denormal or normal and when Src1 is zero, denormal, or normal) are processed via the main data flow to set the output to A*2{circumflex over ( )}floor(B)

When executing a scale instruction, multiplexor 1930 a allows the second input to the adder to set to the output of the float to integer conversion logic 1920, which outputs floor(B). Then, the output of the adder, which is input to the exponent adjustment logic represents the sum of A.Exp and B.Exp and Out.Exp is set as a result of the exponent adjustment logic. Meanwhile, multiplexor 1930 b allows A.Mant to be selected for input to the leading zero detector and the shifter (bypassing the multiplier and adder).

FIG. 20 is a flow diagram illustrating processing of a scale instruction, according to an embodiment. At block 2010, a scale instruction is received at a floating point unit of a shader execution unit (e.g., shader execution unit 1400). According to one embodiment, as a result of software emulation of an exponential or division operation by a corresponding library function, the scale instruction may be received by an FMA execution unit (e.g., FMA execution unit 1700). A non-limiting example, of a branch-free emulation algorithm for an exponential operation is depicted in FIG. 21 .

At decision block 2020, it is determined whether the combination of source operands of the scale instruction represents one of multiple special cases. If so, execution of the scale instruction proceeds with block 2030; otherwise, execution of the scale instruction proceeds with block 2040. In one embodiment, detection of the special cases (e.g., those listed in Table 5) are performed within a pre-processing stage (e.g., pre-processing logic 2010) of the FMA execution unit.

At block 2030, the destination operand specified by the scale instruction is set to a value corresponding to the special case at issue. According to one embodiment, responsive to detecting the combination of source operands is one of the special cases, the pre-processing stage also handles the special case. For example, for those combination of input operand values listed in Table 5, the pre-processing stage of the FMA execution unit may bypass the main data flow of the FMA execution unit and cause the destination operand to be set to the corresponding result in Table 5. In this manner, special case processing (e.g., branches) relating to such combination of special inputs need not be performed by the library function, thereby reducing the number of instructions and increasing the performance of the library function.

At block 2040, a temporary mantissa is generated by extracting a mantissa portion of the first source operand (e.g., A in FIG. 19 ). As noted above, in one embodiment, this functionality may be performed by the pre-processing stage of the FMA execution unit.

At block 2050, a temporary integer value is generated by converting the second source operand to integer format. According to one embodiment, the second source operand (e.g., B in FIG. 19 ) is input to float to integer conversion logic (e.g., float to integer conversion logic 1920), which outputs the nearest integer to the floating point input rounded downwards (e.g., floor(B) in FIG. 19 ).

At block 2060, a temporary exponent is generated by adding an exponent portion of the first source operand (e.g., A in FIG. 19 ) to the temporary integer value. As noted above, in one embodiment, the exponent portion of the first source operand may be performed by the pre-processing stage of the FMA execution unit. In one embodiment, an adder of the FMA execution unit may receive the exponent portion of the first source operand and the temporary integer value (e.g., the output of multiplexor 1930 a) and may output the temporary exponent (e.g., representing A.Exp+floor(B) in FIG. 19 ).

At block 2070, the destination operand is set by applying overflow/underflow logic and rounding logic of the FMA execution unit to the temporary mantissa and the temporary exponent.

While in the example FMA execution units of FIGS. 15, 17, and 19 , modifications to an existing FMA execution unit are described and illustrated for supporting get exponent, get mantissa, and scale instructions, respectively, it is to be appreciated the modifications may be combined as desired to support various combinations or all of the get exponent, get mantissa, and scale instructions.

Extensions and Alternatives

Various potential extensions to the get exponent and get mantissa instructions are contemplated. For example, a 2-bit immediate field (e.g., imm) may also be provided, for example, within a second source operand (Src1). In such an extension, the special cases may remain the same as described above for all imm and imm may be used as follows:

-   -   For imm=0: dest:=FP(unbiased_exponent(Src0))//same as above,         i.e. equal to floor(log 2(|Src0|))     -   Imm=1: dest:=FP((unbiased_exponent(Src0)+1)>>1)//This option may         be used for SQRT support, and eliminates the need for further         exponent processing in the SQRT sequence     -   Imm=2: dest:=FP(unbiased_exponent(Src0)+1)     -   Imm=3: dest:=(lead_mant_bit==1) ? FP(unbiased_exponent(Src0)+1):         FP(unbiased_exponent(Src0))//lead_mant_bit is the first         fractional mantissa bit (of input Src0)     -   //Imm=0, Imm=2, Imm=3 ensure that         Src0/GETMANT(Src0,imm)==2{circumflex over ( )}GETEXP(Src0,imm)     -   //Imm=1 ensures that Src0/GETMANT(Src0,imm)==2{circumflex over         ( )}(2*GETEXP(Src0,imm))

In addition, another potential variation of the get exponent instruction (e.g., get exponent difference) may be used to better support floating-point division as follows:

-   -   GETEXPDIFF Dst, Src0, Src1     -   //Special cases based on either Src0 or Src1 being zero/Inf/NaN     -   Dst:=(mantissa(Src0)<mantissa(Src1)) ?         FP(unbiased_exponent(Src0)-unbiased_exponent (Src1)-1):         FP(unbiased_exponent(Src0)-unbiased_exponent (Src1))

In one embodiment, the GETEXPDIFF instruction would be accompanied by a dedicated GETMANT option specifically optimized for use in division as follows:

-   -   GETMANTDIV Dst, Src0, Src1     -   //Special cases are similar to GETMANT cases described above     -   Dst:=(mantissa(Src0)<mantissa(Src1)) ?         2.0*signed_mantissa(Src0):         signed_mantissa(Src0)//signed_mantissa(Src0) carries the sign         bit of Src0     -   //GETEXPDIFF computes the exponent of Src0/Src1, while         GETMANTDIV facilitates the computation of the Src0/Src1 signed         mantissa         Usage of the New Instructions

As noted above, the get exponent, get mantissa, and scale instructions may be used to in connection with efficient branch-free emulation algorithms for transcendental functions and for division. For example, logarithm calculations may be represented in the following form using the get exponent and get mantissa instructions: log₂(x)=GETEXP(x)+log₂(GETMANT(x,0,2)) log(x)=GETEXP(x)*log(2.0)+log(GETMANT(x,0,2))

In the above, by setting control bits representing the sign control (e.g., SignCtrl) to 2, NaN is the result of GETMANT when x<0. GETEXP covers the special case inputs of +/−0 and +/−INF. This allows the main computation of the log function emulation to be reduced to computing log(mantissa), where mantissa in [1,2) is the vector get mantissa (VGETMANT) output for finite x>0. It is to be appreciated that some log( ) implementations may use the GETMANT(x,3,2) reduction (as well as a conditional correction added to the GETEXP result) in order to approximate log( ) over the [3/4, 3/2) interval, rather than [1,2).

Application examples for the scale instruction include exponential calculations (e.g., 2 raised to a given power, e raised to a given power, and/or x raised to a given power) and division.

In one embodiment, using a scale instruction, raising 2 to a given power may be expressed as follows: exp 2(x)=SCALEF(exp 2(x-floor(x)), x)

In the above, x-floor(x) is in [0,1) for non-special inputs, and 2.0{circumflex over ( )}(x-floor(x)) can be approximated via a polynomial. When special cases are handled in the manner described above, no special paths (branches) need be implemented by the emulation code.

In one embodiment, using a scale instruction, raising e to a given power may be expressed as follows: exp(x)=SCALEF(2^(R(x)) , x*(1/log(2.0)),

-   -   where R(x)=x−log(2.0)*floor(x*(1/log(2.0)) is computed using a         sufficiently accurate log(2.0) representation (longer than         native precision). As with exp 2, 2.0^(R(x)) may be approximated         as a polynomial, and no special case branches are required.

In one embodiment, using a scale instruction and the get exponent and get exponent instructions, raising x to a given power may be expressed as follows: x ^(alpha)=SCALEF((GETMANT(x, 0, 0))^(alpha.)2^(frac (GETEXP(x)*alpha)),

-   -   GETEXP(x)*alpha)     -   where frac(y)=y-floor(y).

A common value for alpha is ⅓ (cbrt function). For alpha=½ (sqrt), the preferred reduction is x^(1/2)=SCALEF((GETMANT(x, 1, 2))^(1/2), GETEXP(x)*0.5+0.5)

In one embodiment, using a scale instruction and the get exponent and get exponent instructions division may be expressed as follows: a/b=SCALEF(GETMANT(a,0,0)/GETMANT(b,0,0), GETEXP(a)−GETEXP(b))

This approach helps avoid unwanted overflow/underflow during the computation and is enough for branch-free quotient approximations that are not fully IEEE-compliant. IEEE-compliant division should address corner cases near the underflow threshold and ensure that spurious exception flags are not set during the computation.

FIG. 21 illustrates differences between a baseline software emulation algorithm 2110 and a branch-free software emulation algorithm 2120 for an exponential operation, according to an embodiment. The baseline 2110 may be implemented on an existing FMA execution unit using a double precision FMA instruction (DP_FMA). In contrast, the branch-free algorithm 2120 may be implemented on a modified FMA execution unit (e.g., FMA execution unit 1900) using a combination of the double precision FMA instruction and the double precision scale instruction (DP_SCALEF). Differences between the two emulation algorithms are highlighted by rectangles encompassing the pseudo code at issue. As can be seen, the total number of instructions for emulating an exponent operation can be significantly reduced by making use of the scale instruction. For example, the branch codes and some extra logic options included within the baseline 2110 can be completely removed from the branch-free algorithm 2120.

FIG. 22 illustrates differences between a baseline software emulation algorithm 2210 and a branch-free software emulation algorithm 2220 for a logarithm operation, according to an embodiment. The baseline 2210 may be implemented on an existing FMA execution unit using a double precision FMA instruction (DP_FMA). The branch-free algorithm 2220 may be implemented on an FMA execution unit modified as shown and described with reference to FIGS. 15-18 using a combination of the double precision FMA instruction and the double precision get mantissa (DP_GETMANT) and get exponent instructions (DP_GETEXP). Differences between the two emulation algorithms are highlighted by rectangles encompassing the pseudo code at issue. As can be seen, the total number of instructions for emulating a logarithm operation can be significantly reduced by making use of the get mantissa and get exponent instructions. For example, branch codes as well as some logic operations contained within the baseline 2210 can be avoided in the branch-free algorithm 2220.

In the description above, for the purposes of explanation, numerous specific details are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of the described embodiments. It will be apparent, however, to one skilled in the art that embodiments may be practiced without some of these specific details. In other instances, well-known structures and devices are shown in block diagram form. There may be intermediate structure between illustrated components. The components described or illustrated herein may have additional inputs or outputs that are not illustrated or described.

Various embodiments may include various processes. These processes may be performed by hardware components or may be embodied in computer program or machine-executable instructions, which may be used to cause a general-purpose or special-purpose processor or logic circuits programmed with the instructions to perform the processes. Alternatively, the processes may be performed by a combination of hardware and software.

Portions of various embodiments may be provided as a computer program product, which may include a computer-readable medium having stored thereon computer program instructions, which may be used to program a computer (or other electronic devices) for execution by one or more processors to perform a process according to certain embodiments. The computer-readable medium may include, but is not limited to, magnetic disks, optical disks, read-only memory (ROM), random access memory (RAM), erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM), electrically-erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM), magnetic or optical cards, flash memory, or other type of computer-readable medium suitable for storing electronic instructions. Moreover, embodiments may also be downloaded as a computer program product, wherein the program may be transferred from a remote computer to a requesting computer.

Many of the methods are described in their most basic form, but processes can be added to or deleted from any of the methods and information can be added or subtracted from any of the described messages without departing from the basic scope of the present embodiments. It will be apparent to those skilled in the art that many further modifications and adaptations can be made. The particular embodiments are not provided to limit the concept but to illustrate it. The scope of the embodiments is not to be determined by the specific examples provided above but only by the claims below.

If it is said that an element “A” is coupled to or with element “B,” element A may be directly coupled to element B or be indirectly coupled through, for example, element C. When the specification or claims state that a component, feature, structure, process, or characteristic A “causes” a component, feature, structure, process, or characteristic B, it means that “A” is at least a partial cause of “B” but that there may also be at least one other component, feature, structure, process, or characteristic that assists in causing “B.” If the specification indicates that a component, feature, structure, process, or characteristic “may”, “might”, or “could” be included, that particular component, feature, structure, process, or characteristic is not required to be included. If the specification or claim refers to “a” or “an” element, this does not mean there is only one of the described elements.

An embodiment is an implementation or example. Reference in the specification to “an embodiment,” “one embodiment,” “some embodiments,” or “other embodiments” means that a particular feature, structure, or characteristic described in connection with the embodiments is included in at least some embodiments, but not necessarily all embodiments. The various appearances of “an embodiment,” “one embodiment,” or “some embodiments” are not necessarily all referring to the same embodiments. It should be appreciated that in the foregoing description of exemplary embodiments, various features are sometimes grouped together in a single embodiment, figure, or description thereof for the purpose of streamlining the disclosure and aiding in the understanding of one or more of the various novel aspects. This method of disclosure, however, is not to be interpreted as reflecting an intention that the claimed embodiments requires more features than are expressly recited in each claim. Rather, as the following claims reflect, novel aspects lie in less than all features of a single foregoing disclosed embodiment. Thus, the claims are hereby expressly incorporated into this description, with each claim standing on its own as a separate embodiment. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A graphics processing unit (GPU) comprising: a fused multiply-add (FMA) execution unit operable to: receive a get mantissa instruction, wherein the get mantissa instruction specifies a first source operand and a destination operand represented in floating-point format and specifies a second source operand containing a plurality of control bits; and execute the get mantissa instruction by: responsive to the first source operand representing a special case of a plurality of special cases: bypassing a main data flow of the FMA execution unit; and setting the destination operand to a value corresponding to the special case; and responsive to the first source operand not representing any of the plurality of special cases, following the main data flow of the FMA execution unit, including: setting a mantissa portion of the destination operand to a mantissa portion of the first source operand; selectively setting an exponent portion of the destination operand to a bias value or the bias value minus 1 based on a normalization interval encoded within the plurality of control bits and an unbiased exponent value of the first source operand; and selectively setting a sign portion of the destination operand based on a sign control encoded within the plurality of control bits.
 2. The GPU of claim 1, wherein the FMA execution unit is further operable to execute the get mantissa instruction by prior to said setting a mantissa portion of the destination operand, when the first source operand is denormal, normalizing the first source operand.
 3. The GPU of claim 1, wherein the FMA execution unit also supports execution of a get exponent instruction that extracts an exponent of an input floating point number.
 4. The GPU of claim 1, wherein the FMA execution unit also supports execution of a scale instruction that outputs a value representing a first input floating point number multiplied by 2 to a power of a second input floating point number rounded downwards to a nearest integer.
 5. The GPU of claim 1, wherein when the special case is Not-a-Number (NaN), the value corresponding to the special case is quiet NaN.
 6. The GPU of claim 1, wherein when the special case is positive infinity (+INF) or positive zero, the value corresponding to the special case is 1.0.
 7. The GPU of claim 1, wherein the get mantissa instruction is part of a branch-free algorithm for performing a logarithm operation.
 8. A graphics processing unit (GPU) comprising: a fused multiply-add (FMA) execution unit operable to: receive a scale instruction, wherein the scale instruction specifies a first source operand, a second source operand, and a destination operand represented in floating-point format; and execute the scale instruction by: responsive to the first source operand and the second source operand representing a special case of a plurality of special cases: bypassing a main data flow of the FMA execution unit; and setting the destination operand to a value corresponding to the special case; and responsive to the first source operand and the second source operand not representing any of the plurality of special cases, following the main data flow of the FMA execution unit, including: generating a temporary mantissa by extracting a mantissa portion from the first source operand; generating a temporary integer value by converting the second source operand to integer format; generating a temporary exponent by adding an exponent portion of the first source operand to the temporary integer value; and setting the destination operand by applying overflow/underflow logic and rounding logic of the FMA execution unit to the temporary mantissa and the temporary exponent.
 9. The GPU of claim 8, wherein the FMA execution unit also supports execution of a get mantissa instruction that extracts a mantissa of an input floating point number.
 10. The GPU of claim 8, wherein the FMA execution unit also supports execution of a get exponent instruction that extracts an exponent of an input floating point number.
 11. The GPU of claim 8, wherein the scale instruction is part of a branch-free algorithm for performing an exponential operation.
 12. The GPU of claim 8, wherein the scale instruction is part of a branch-free algorithm for performing a quotient approximation.
 13. A method comprising: receiving a get exponent instruction at a floating point unit (FPU) of a shader execution unit of a graphics processing unit (GPU), wherein the get exponent instruction specifies a source operand and a destination operand represented in floating-point format; and executing the get exponent instruction on a fused multiply-add (FMA) execution unit of the FPU by: responsive to the source operand representing a special case of a plurality of special cases: bypassing a main data flow of the FMA execution unit; and setting the destination operand to a value corresponding to the special case; and responsive to the source operand not representing any of the plurality of special cases, following the main data flow of the FMA execution unit, including: obtaining an integer value of an unbiased representation of a biased exponent of the source operand; converting the unbiased representation to a floating point number; and setting the destination operand to the floating point number.
 14. The method of claim 13, further comprising prior to said obtaining, when the source operand is denormal, normalizing the source operand.
 15. The method of claim 13, wherein the FMA execution unit also supports execution of a get mantissa instruction that extracts a mantissa of an input floating point number.
 16. The method of claim 13, wherein the FMA execution unit also supports execution of a scale instruction that outputs a value representing a first input floating point number multiplied by 2 to a power of a second input floating point number rounded downwards to a nearest integer.
 17. The method of claim 13, wherein when the special case is Not-a-Number (NaN), the value corresponding to the special case is quiet NaN.
 18. The method of claim 13, wherein when the special case is positive infinity (+INF) or negative infinity (−INF), the value corresponding to the special case is +INF.
 19. The method of claim 13, wherein when the special case is zero, the value corresponding to the special case is −INF.
 20. The method of claim 13, wherein the get exponent instruction is part of a branch-free algorithm for performing a logarithm operation.
 21. A non-transitory computer-readable storage medium embodying a set of instructions, including a get exponent instruction specifying a source operand and a destination operand represented in floating-point format, which when executed by a floating point unit (FPU) of a shader execution unit of a graphics processing unit (GPU) cause the FPU to: execute the get exponent instruction on a fused multiply-add (FMA) execution unit of the FPU by: responsive to the source operand representing a special case of a plurality of special cases: bypassing a main data flow of the FMA execution unit; and setting the destination operand to a value corresponding to the special case; and responsive to the source operand not representing any of the plurality of special cases, following the main data flow of the FMA execution unit, including: obtaining an integer value of an unbiased representation of a biased exponent of the source operand; converting the unbiased representation to a floating point number; and setting the destination operand to the floating point number.
 22. The non-transitory computer-readable storage medium of claim 21, wherein when the special case is Not-a-Number (NaN), the value corresponding to the special case is quiet NaN.
 23. The non-transitory computer-readable storage medium of claim 21, wherein when the special case is positive infinity (+INF) or negative infinity (−INF), the value corresponding to the special case is +INF.
 24. The non-transitory computer-readable storage medium of claim 21, wherein when the special case is zero, the value corresponding to the special case is −INF.
 25. The non-transitory computer-readable storage medium of claim 21, wherein the set of instructions represent a branch-free algorithm for performing a logarithm operation. 